Research Methods in Human Computer Interaction 1st Edition by Jonathan Lazar, Jinjuan Heidi Feng, Harry Hochheiser ISBN 9780470723371 0470723378

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ISBN 10: 0470723378
ISBN 13: 9780470723371
Author: Jonathan Lazar, Jinjuan Heidi Feng, Harry Hochheiser

Written by a team of authorities in human-computer interaction (HCI) and usability, this pedagogical guide walks you through the methods used in HCI and examines what are considered to be appropriate research practices in the field. Featuring a plethora of real-world examples throughout, you’ll discover how these methods have been used in HCI research so that you can gain a stronger understanding of the subject matter.

• Serves as an authoritative, comprehensive resource on all things related to research methods in human-computer interaction
• Addresses experimental research and design methods, statistical analysis, and time diaries
• Shares authentic case studies, interviews, and focus group experiences
• Reviews analyzing qualitative data, working with human subjects, handling automated computer data collection methods, and more

If you are looking for a detailed, no-nonsense resource that offers in-depth coverage of HCI methods, then this is the book for you.

Research Methods in Human Computer Interaction 1st Edition Table of contents:

1 Introduction

1.1 Changes in topics of HCI research over time

1.2 Shifts in measurement in HCI

Depth vs Breadth in Menus

Figure 1.1 Types of tree structure in menu design: (a) Narrow–deep: three levels with two choices at each level; (b) broad–shallow: two choices followed by four choices; (c) broad–shallow: four choices followed by two choices.

1.3 Inherent conflicts in HCI

1.4 Interdisciplinary nature of HCI research

Figure 1.2 How disciplines focus on certain phases of the research process.

1.5 Communicating your ideas

1.6 Research and usability testing

Summary of Chapters

Discussion Questions

Research Design Exercise

References

2 Experimental research

2.1 Types of behavioral research

Table 2.1 Relationship between descriptive research, relational research, and experimental research.

2.2 Research hypotheses

Theory vs Hypothesis

2.2.1 Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis

2.2.2 Dependent and independent variables

2.2.3 Typical independent variables in HCI research

2.2.4 Typical dependent variables in HCI research

2.3 Basics of experimental research

2.3.1 Components of an experiment

2.3.2 Randomization

Table 2.2 An abbreviated random digit table.

2.4 Significance tests

2.4.1 Why do we need them?

Figure 2.1 Normal distribution curve.

2.4.2 Type I and Type II errors

Table 2.3 Type I and Type II errors in the judicial case.

Table 2.4 Type I and Type II errors in a hypothetical HCI experiment.

2.4.3 Controlling the risks of Type I and Type II errors

2.5 Limitations of experimental research

Empirical Evaluation in HCI

Summary

Discussion Questions

Research Design Exercises

References

3 Experimental design

Figure 3.1 Defining true experiments, quasi-experiments, and non-experiments.

3.1 What needs to be considered when designing experiments?

3.2 Determining the basic design structure

Figure 3.2 Determining the experiment structure.

3.3 Investigating a single independent variable

3.3.1 Between-group design and within-group design

Figure 3.3 Between-group design.

Figure 3.4 Within-group design.

3.3.1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of between-group design

3.3.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Within-group Design

3.3.1.3 Comparison of between-group and within-group designs

Table 3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of between-group design and within-group design.

3.3.2 Choosing the appropriate design approach

3.3.2.1 Between-group design

3.3.2.2 Within-group design

Figure 3.5 Typical learning curve.

3.4 Investigating more than one independent variable

3.4.1 Factorial Design

Table 3.2 A factorial design.

3.4.2 Split-plot design

Table 3.3 A split-plot design.

Factorial Design in HCI Research

3.4.3 Interaction effects

Figure 3.6 Interaction effects.

3.5 Reliability of experimental results

3.5.1 Random errors

3.5.2 Systematic errors

Figure 3.7 Comparison of random and systematic errors.

3.5.2.1 Bias caused by measurement instruments

3.5.2.2 Bias caused by experimental procedures

3.5.2.3 Bias caused by participants

3.5.2.4 Bias due to experimenter behavior

3.5.2.5 Bias due to environmental factors

3.6 Experimental procedures

Summary

Discussion Questions

Research Design Exercises

References

4 Statistical analysis

4.1 Preparing data for statistical analysis

4.1.1 Cleaning up data

4.1.2 Coding data

Table 4.1 Sample demographic data in its original form.

Table 4.2 Sample demographic data in coded form.

4.1.3 Organizing data

4.2 Descriptive statistics

4.2.1 Measures of central tendency

Figure 4.1 Normal distribution curve.

4.2.2 Measures of spread

4.3 Comparing means

Table 4.3 Commonly used significance tests for comparing means and their application context.

4.4 T tests

4.4.1 Independent-samples t test

4.4.2 Paired-samples t test

Table 4.4 Sample data for independent-samples t test.

4.4.3 Interpretation of t test results

Table 4.5 Sample data for paired-samples t test.

4.4.4 Two-tailed t tests and one-tailed t tests

4.5 Analysis of variance

4.5.1 One-way ANOVA

Table 4.6 Sample data for one-way ANOVA test.

Table 4.7 Result of the one-way ANOVA test.

4.5.2 Factorial ANOVA

Table 4.8 A between-group factorial design with two independent variables.

Table 4.9 Sample data for the factorial ANOVA test.

Table 4.10 Result of the factorial ANOVA test.

4.5.3 Repeated measures ANOVA

Table 4.11 Sample data for one-way repeated measures ANOVA.

Table 4.12 Result of the one way repeated measures ANOVA test.

4.5.4 ANOVA for split-plot design

Table 4.13 Experiment design of a two-way, repeated measures ANOVA.

Table 4.14 Sample data for two-way, repeated measures ANOVA test.

Table 4.15 Result of the two-way, repeated measures ANOVA test.

Table 4.16 Split-plot experiment design.

Table 4.17 Sample data for the split-plot ANOVA test.

Table 4.18 Results of the split-plot test for the between-group variable.

Table 4.19 Results of the split-plot test for the within-group variable.

4.6 Assumptions of t tests and F tests

4.7 Identifying relationships

Table 4.20 Sample data for correlation tests.

Table 4.21 Results of the correlation tests.

Figure 4.2 Relationship between correlated variables and an intervening variable.

4.8 Regression

Table 4.22 Sample data for the regression analysis.

Table 4.23 Result for simultaneous regression procedure.

4.9 Nonparametric statistical tests

Table 4.24 Result for hierarchical regression procedure.

Figure 4.3 Likert scale question.

4.9.1 Chi-square test

Table 4.25 A 2-by-2 frequency count table.

Table 4.26 A 3 by 3 frequency count table.

4.9.2 Other non-parametric tests

Summary

Discussion Questions

Research Design Exercises

Team Exercises

References

5 Surveys

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Benefits and drawbacks of surveys

Researching Flickr

5.3 Goals and targeted users for survey research

5.4 Probabilistic sampling

US Census—Counting Everyone

A Study with Random Sampling

Use of Sampling Frames in Studying Internet Access

5.4.1 Stratification

Stratification

5.4.2 Response size

5.4.3 Errors

5.5 Non-probabilistic sampling

5.5.1 Demographic data

5.5.2 Oversampling

Demographic Data and Oversampling

5.5.3 Random sampling of usage, not users

5.5.4 Self-selected surveys

5.5.5 Uninvestigated populations

Computer Usage Patterns of People with Down Syndrome

5.6 Developing survey questions

5.6.1 Open-ended questions

Figure 5.1 A closed-ended question with an ordered response.

5.6.2 Closed-ended questions

Figure 5.2 A closed-ended question with an unordered response (single selection).

Figure 5.3 A closed-ended question with an unordered response (multiple selection).

5.6.3 Common problems with survey questions

5.7 Overall survey structure

Figure 5.4 A contingent question on a paper survey.

5.8 Existing surveys

Table 5.1 Survey tools in HCI.

5.9 Paper or online surveys?

5.10 Testing the survey tool

5.11 Response rate

5.12 Data analysis

Summary

Discussion Questions

Research Design Exercise

References

6 Diaries

6.1 Introduction

Time Diaries to Study User Frustration

6.2 Why do we use diaries in HCI research?

Table 6.1 Strengths and weaknesses of diaries.

6.3 Participants for a diary study

6.4 What type of diary?

6.4.1 Feedback Diary

6.4.2 Elicitation diary

6.4.3 Hybrid feedback and elicitation diary

6.5 Data collection for the diary study

Diary Study of Task Switching

Recording Diary Entries on the Go

6.6 Letting participants know when to record a diary entry

6.7 Analysis of diaries

Summary

Discussion Questions

Research Design Exercise

References

Appendix A Frustration Experience Form (Time Diary)

Appendix B Excel Time Diary Form

7 Case studies

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Observing Sara: a case study of a case study

Table 7.1 Analysis of Sara’s tasks (excerpted from (Shinohara and Tenenberg, 2007)).

7.3 What is a case study?

7.3.1 In-depth investigation of a small number of cases

7.3.2 Examination in context

7.3.3 Multiple data sources

7.3.4 Emphasis on qualitative data and analysis

7.4 Goals of HCI case studies

7.4.1 Exploration

7.4.2 Explanation

Extreme Cases

7.4.3 Description

Interfaces for People with Alzheimer’s Disease

7.4.4 Demonstration

Interfaces for Quadriplegic People

7.5 Types of case study

7.5.1 Intrinsic or instrumental

7.5.2 Single case or multiple cases

The International Children’s Digital Library

Figure 7.1 The search interface for the International Children’s Digital Library (www.childrenslibrary.org) provides young readers with search tools designed to meet their interests.

7.5.3 Embedded or holistic

7.6 Research questions and hypotheses

7.7 Choosing cases

7.8 Data collection

7.8.1 Data sources and questions

7.8.2 Collecting data

7.9 Analysis and interpretation

7.10 Writing up the study

7.11 Informal case studies

Summary

Discussion Questions

Research Design Exercises

References

8 Interviews and focus groups

8.1 Pros and cons of interviews

8.2 Applications of interviews in HCI research

8.2.1 Initial exploration

Finding and Reminding

Green Living Interviews

8.2.2 Requirements gathering

8.2.3 Evaluation and subjective reactions

8.3 Who to interview

8.4 Interview strategies

8.4.1 How much structure?

8.4.2 Focused and contextual interviews

8.5 Interviews vs focus groups

8.6 Types of question

Figure 8.1 Interview participants were asked to draw a secure web connection: a secure web connection is (a) correctly depicted as protecting information transmitted from the PC to the web server and (b) incorrectly depicted as secure data storage (Friedman et al., 2002).

8.7 Conducting an interview

8.7.1 Preparation

8.7.2 Recording the responses

8.7.3 During the interview

8.7.3.1 Rapport

8.7.3.2 The introduction

8.7.3.3 Getting down to business

8.7.3.4 Promoting discussion

8.7.3.5 Debriefing

8.8 Electronically mediated interviews and focus groups

8.8.1 Telephone

8.8.2 Online

8.9 Analyzing interview data

8.9.1 What to analyze

8.9.2 How to analyze

Contextual Inquiry

Interview Analysis for Novices

8.9.3 Validity

8.9.4 Reporting results

Summary

Discussion Questions

Research Design Exercises

References

9 Ethnography

9.1 Introduction

9.2 What is ethnography?

9.3 Ethnography in HCI

9.4 Conducting ethnographic research

9.4.1 Selecting a site or group of interest

9.4.2 Participating: choosing a role

Figure 9.1 The spectrum of roles for ethnographic researchers (Gold, 1958).

Ethnographic Research of Your Own Community

9.4.3 Building relationships

9.4.4 Making contact

9.4.5 Interviewing, observing, analyzing, repeating, and theorizing

Figure 9.2 The iterative process of ethnographic research.

9.4.6 Reporting results

9.5 Some examples

9.5.1 Home settings

9.5.2 Work settings

9.5.3 Educational settings

9.5.4 Ethnographies of mobile and ubiquitous systems

9.5.5 Virtual ethnography

Researching Online Dating

Summary

Discussion Questions

Research Design Exercises

References

10 Usability testing

10.1 What is usability testing?

Figure 10.1 An airline check-in screen with at least one clear usability flaw.

10.2 How does usability testing relate to traditional research?

Table 10.1 Differences between classical research and usability testing.

10.3 Types of usability testing or usability inspections

10.3.1 Expert-based testing

Table 10.2 Shneiderman’s 8 Golden Rules of Interface Design.

10.3.2 Automated usability testing

Accessibility Research with Automated Usability Tools

10.4 User-based testing

10.4.1 Types of usability testing

Usability Testing of the Kodak Website

10.4.2 Stages of usability testing

Figure 10.2 Stages of usability testing from different authors.

10.4.3 How many users are sufficient?

10.4.4 Locations for usability testing

Figure 10.3 A formal usability laboratory with a one-way mirror.

Figure 10.4 Potential layouts for a usability lab: (a) at a university and (b) at the US Census Bureau.

Figure 10.5 A camera and a microphone on a user in a portable usability lab.

10.4.5 Task list

10.4.6 Measurement

Usability Testing of the Software Leescircus

10.4.7 The testing session

Fidelity Investments

10.4.8 Making sense of the data

10.5 Other variations on usability testing

Summary

Discussion Questions

Research Design Exercise

References

11 Analyzing qualitative data

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Stages of qualitative analysis

11.3 Grounded theory

Figure 11.1 Experimental research compared with grounded theory.

11.4 Content analysis

11.4.1 What is content?

11.4.2 Why do we need to collect text or multimedia information?

Table 11.1 Major categories of content.

11.4.3 Questions to consider before content analysis

11.5 Analyzing text content

11.5.1 Procedure

11.5.2 Identifying coding categories

11.5.2.1 Theoretical framework

11.5.2.2 Researcher-denoted concepts

11.5.2.3 In-vivo codes

11.5.2.4 Building a code structure

11.5.3 Coding the text

11.5.3.1 Look for key items

Table 11.2 What to look for while coding.

11.5.3.2 Ask questions about the data

11.5.3.3 Making comparisons of data

11.5.3.4 Using computer software

11.5.4 Ensuring high-quality analysis

11.5.4.1 Validity

11.5.4.2 Reliability

Table 11.3 The distribution of coded items under each category by two coders (agreement matrix).

Table 11.4 Interpretation of Cohen’s Kappa.

11.5.4.3 Subjective vs. objective coders

11.6 Analyzing multimedia content

Summary

Discussion Questions

Research Design Exercise

Table 11.5 Children’s computer usage objectives–coding agreement.

References

12 Automated data collection methods

12.1 Exploiting existing tools

Figure 12.1 Computerized data collection systems present a trade-off between power and ease of use.

12.1.1 Web logs

12.1.1.1 Web log contents

Figure 12.2 Log file entries, containing host IP address, timestamp, request, status code, and number of bytes.

Figure 12.3 A detailed version of the last entry from Figure 12.2, including the referrer and the user agent.

12.1.1.2 Web usability/design research

12.1.1.3 Empirical studies

Simultaneous vs Sequential Menus

Figure 12.4 Sequential menus: users choose first from counties, then from categories, and finally from years, in order to get to a detail page.

Figure 12.5 Simultaneous menus: once a user has selected a value for each of the three variables, details are shown on the right.

12.1.2 Stored application data

12.2 Using software to observe and record

12.2.1 Web proxies

Figure 12.6 User actions: (a) passed directly to an application and (b) intercepted by a proxy.

Figure 12.7 Web requests: (a) standard request–response and (b) intercepted by a proxy.

Figure 12.8 Firefox proxy configuration dialog for the web browser: the computer at address 127.0.0.1 will act as a proxy server on port 80.

Figure 12.9 Log entries from a proxy server.

12.2.2 Instrumented software

Instrumented Software for HCI Data Collection

12.2.3 Custom-built software

Fitts’ Law, Children, and Mouse Control

Figure 12.10 Aggregate mouse controls for all users show striking differences in the paths covered by different groups: (1) adults, (2) five-year-olds, and (3) four-year-olds (Hourcade et al., 2004).

Figure 12.11 Typical paths illustrate greater re-entry rates for children: (1) adult, (2) five-year-old, and (3) four-year-old (Hourcade et al., 2004).

12.2.4 Handling stored data

12.2.5 Keystroke and activity loggers

12.2.6 Analyzing log files

12.3 Hybrid data collection methods

Figure 12.12 WebQuilt visualizations of log file data: (a) visualization of paths between two endpoints and (b) a page in context (Hong et al., 2001).

12.4 Automated interface evaluation

12.5 Challenges of computerized data collection

Summary

Discussion Questions

Research Design Exercises

References

13 Measuring the human

13.1 Eye tracking

Motion Tracking for Large Displays and Virtual Environments

Figure 13.1 A portion of the wall-sized display used in the navigation study

Figure 13.2 A hat mounted with head-tracking sensors for the study of navigation with wall-sized displays

Figure 13.3 A web page annotated with eye-tracking data: lines indicating gaze paths link fixation points annotated with time stamps, providing a trail for a series of interactions

13.2 Physiological tools

13.2.1 Physiological data

Table 13.1 Types of physiological data used in HCI research.

13.2.1.1 Electrodermal activity or galvanic skin response

Figure 13.4 Thought Technology’s skin conductance sensor attaches to two fingers or toes to measure galvanic skin response (GSR) (https://www.thoughttechnology.com/sensors.htm, accessed 5 March, 2008).

13.2.1.2 Cardiovascular signals

13.2.1.3 Respiration

13.2.1.4 Muscular and skeletal position sensing

13.2.1.5 Muscle tension

13.2.1.6 Brain activity

fNIRS and HCI

13.2.2 Challenges in data collection and interpretation

Figure 13.5 A complex experimental setup: physiological signals are collected by the ProComp analog-to-digital converter and stored on the laptop; the mouse is modified to simultaneously send control events to the computer and pulses to the analog-to-digital converter

13.3 Examples of physiological research in HCI

Summary

Discussion Questions

Research Design Exercise

References

14 Working with human subjects

14.1 Identifying potential participants

14.1.1 Which subjects?

14.1.2 How many subjects?

14.1.3 Recruiting participants

Menu Task Performance Studies with Blind Users

14.2 Care and handling of research participants

14.2.1 Protecting participants

Milgram’s Experiment

The Stanford Prison Experiment

Informed Consent: Origins and Controversies

14.2.2 Informed consent

14.2.3 Institutional review boards

Figure 14.1 Informed consent form.

14.2.4 Potentially deceptive research?

14.2.5 General concerns

14.3 Online research

14.3.1 Appropriate topics for online research

14.3.2 Recruiting

14.3.3 Study design

14.3.4 Ethical concerns

14.3.5 Data collection

Summary

Discussion Questions

Research Design Exercises

References

15 Working with research participants with impairments

15.1 Introduction

15.2 How many participants?

15.2.1 Small sample sizes

15.2.2 Distributed research

15.2.3 In-depth case studies

iSonic Evaluation Case Studies

15.3 Proxy users

Children with Down Syndrome

15.4 Multi-Population Studies

15.5 Recruiting users through community partners

15.6 Pilot studies

15.7 Scheduling users with impairments

15.8 Documentation for users with impairments

15.8.1 Human subjects forms

15.8.2 Research documentation

Figure 15.1 An IRB form with a signature guide for blind users.

15.9 Differing levels of ability

15.10 Bringing extra computer parts

Participants Getting Frustrated

15.11 Payment

Summary

Discussion Questions

Research Design Exercise

References

Back Matter

Index

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