Postharvest Physiology and Biochemistry of Fruits and Vegetables 1st Edition by Elhadi Yahia, Armando Carrillo Lopez 0128132787 9780128132784

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ISBN 10: 0128132787

ISBN 13: 9780128132784

Author: Elhadi M. Yahia; Armando Carrillo-Lopez

Postharvest Physiology and Biochemistry of Fruits and Vegetables presents an updated, interrelated and sequenced view of the contribution of fruits and vegetables on human health, their aspects of plant metabolism, physical and chemical/compositional changes during the entire fruit development lifecycle, the physiological disorders and biochemical effects of modified/controlled atmospheres, and the biotechnology of horticultural crops. The book is written specifically for those interested in preharvest and postharvest crop science and the impact of physiological and biochemical changes on their roles as functional foods.

• Deals with the developmental aspects of the lifecycle in whole fruits
• Describes issues, such as the morphology and anatomy of fruits, beginning with the structural organization of the whole plant and explaining the fruit structure and its botanical classification
• Addresses biotechnological concepts that control firmness, quality and the nutritional value of fruits

Postharvest Physiology and Biochemistry of Fruits and Vegetables 1st Table of contents:

1 Introduction

1.1 Introduction

1.2 The Importance of Fruits and Vegetables in Human Nutrition and Health

1.3 Fruit and Vegetable Development

1.4 Postharvest Physiology and Biochemistry

1.5 Biochemical Parameters of Horticultural Crop Quality

1.6 Postharvest Factors Affecting Fruit Physiology and Biochemistry

1.7 Molecular Biology and Biotechnology

1.8 Research on Postharvest Physiology and Biochemistry

1.9 Conclusions

Further Reading

2 Contribution of Fruits and Vegetables to Human Nutrition and Health

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Health-Promoting Components in Fruits and Vegetables

2.2.1 Dietary Fiber

2.2.2 Vitamins

2.2.3 Minerals

2.2.4 Carotenoids

2.2.5 Phytoesterols

2.2.6 Phenolic Compounds

2.3 Contribution of Fruit and Vegetable Consumption to the Prevention of Various Diseases

2.3.1 Cancer

2.3.1.1 Chemoprevention of Carcinogenesis by Phytochemicals

2.3.2 Cardiovascular Disease

2.3.2.1 Hypertension

2.3.2.2 Chronic Heart Failure

2.3.3 Diabetes Mellitus

2.3.4 Overweight and Obesity

2.3.5 Pulmonary Health

2.3.6 Bone Health

2.3.7 Cataracts and Eye Health

2.3.8 Arthritis

2.3.9 Birth Defects

2.3.10 Diverticulosis

2.3.11 Skin Diseases

2.3.12 Neurodegenerative Diseases

2.4 Summary and Conclusions

References

Further Reading

3 Photosynthesis

3.1 Introduction

3.2 The Leaf and Its Structure

3.2.1 Mesophyll Cells and Stomata

3.2.2 Chloroplasts

3.3 Light Absorption

3.3.1 Pigments and Photosynthesis

3.3.2 Photosystems

3.4 Light-Dependent Reaction in Photosynthesis

3.4.1 Cyclic and Noncyclic Photophosphorylation

3.4.2 Cyclic Photophosphorylation

3.4.3 Noncyclic Photophosphorylation

3.5 Carbon Dioxide Fixation (Photosynthesis C3)

3.6 Photorespiration (Also Called Photosynthesis C2)

3.7 Photosynthesis C4 and Crassulacean Acid Metabolism

3.7.1 C4 Photosynthetic Metabolism

3.7.2 Crassulacean Acid Metabolism

3.8 Photosynthetic Adaptations to Different Environmental Conditions

3.8.1 Light Quality (Wavelength)

3.8.2 Light Intensity (Brightness)

3.8.3 Duration of Light (Photoperiod)

3.8.4 Concentration of Carbon Dioxide

3.8.5 Temperature

3.8.6 Availability of Water and Nutrients

3.8.7 Photosynthetic Groups Around the World

3.9 Photosynthesis in Fruits

3.10 Measurements of Photosynthetic Activity

Further Reading

4 Respiratory Metabolism

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Control of Respiratory Metabolism

4.2.1 Temperature

4.2.2 Altered Gaseous Atmospheres

4.2.2.1 Controlled and Modified Atmosphere Storage

4.2.2.2 Lower Pressure Storage

4.3 Measuring Respiration

4.3.1 The Static System

4.3.2 The Flow-Through System

4.4 Respiratory Quotient

4.5 Primary Reaction of Respiratory Metabolism

4.5.1 Glycolysis

4.5.2 Pentose–Phosphate Shunt

4.5.3 Acetyl-Coenzyme A

4.5.4 Synthesis of Fatty Acids

4.5.5 Anaerobic Respiration

4.5.6 Citric Acid Cycle

4.5.7 Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation (Aka Electron Transport)

4.6 Factors Affecting Respiratory Metabolism

4.6.1 Maturity and Fruit Ripening

4.6.2 Biotic and Abiotic Stresses

4.6.3 Chilling and Freezing Temperatures

4.7 Conclusion

References

Further Reading

5 Biology and Biochemistry of Ethylene

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Ethylene Biosynthesis, Perception, and Signal Transduction

5.2.1 The Ethylene Biosynthetic Pathway: Yang’s Cycle

5.2.2 Ethylene Perception and Signal Transduction

5.2.3 Ethylene Quantification

5.3 Ethylene Physiology and Crosstalk With Other Hormones During Postharvest

5.4 The Impact of Postharvest Conditions on Ethylene Physiology

5.4.1 Temperature

5.4.2 Atmosphere Composition

5.4.3 Other Postharvest Treatments

5.4.4 Specific Inhibitors of Ethylene Biosynthesis and Perception

5.5 Biotechnological Approaches

References

Further Reading

6 Morphology and Anatomy

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Structural Organization of Plants (Root and Shoot Systems)

6.3 Fruit and Vegetable Anatomy

6.3.1 Dermal System

6.3.1.1 Epidermal Cells

6.3.1.2 The Cuticular Membrane

6.3.1.3 The Trichomes

6.3.1.4 The Stomata

6.3.1.5 The Lenticels

6.3.2 Ground System

6.3.2.1 Parenchyma Tissue

6.3.2.2 Collenchyma Tissue

6.3.2.3 Sclerenchyma Tissue

6.3.3 Vascular System

6.3.3.1 Xylem

6.3.3.2 Phloem

6.4 The Root

6.5 The Stem

6.6 The Leaf

6.7 The Fruit

6.7.1 Parts of the Fruit

6.7.1.1 The Pericarp

The Epicarp

The Mesocarp

The Endocarp

6.7.1.2 The Seed

6.7.2 Classification of Fruits

6.8 Summary and Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Further Reading

7 Ripening and Senescence

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Regulation of Fruit Ripening

7.2.1 Climacteric and Nonclimacteric Ripening

7.2.2 Ethylene Biosynthesis and Perception

7.2.3 Transcriptional and Epigenetic Regulation

7.2.4 Interaction With Plant Hormones

7.3 Ethylene-Dependent and -Independent Fruit-Ripening Events

7.4 Changes in Fruit Color

7.4.1 Chlorophylls

7.4.2 Carotenoids

7.4.3 Anthocyanins

7.5 Fruit Softening

7.6 Flavor and Aroma Volatiles

7.7 Organic Acids

7.8 Carbohydrate Metabolism

7.9 Vitamins

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

8 Transpiration

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Physical Properties of Water

8.3 Physics of Water Loss

8.4 Transpiration of Fruits and Vegetables Attached to the Plant

8.5 Transpiration of Fruits and Vegetables After Harvest

8.6 Measurement of Transpiration in Fruits and Vegetables

8.7 Factors that Affect Postharvest Transpiration

8.8 Environmental Factors

8.9 Biological Factors

8.9.1 Fruit Size

8.9.2 Surface Area/Weight Ratio

8.9.3 Stage of Development/Maturity Stage

8.9.4 Epidermis (Skin)

8.9.5 Injuries, Wounds, and Cracks

8.9.6 Presence of Leaves, Stems, Flowers, or Calyx Attached to Commodities

8.9.7 Cultivars

8.9.8 Storage

8.10 Control of Transpiration

8.10.1 Storage

8.10.2 Surface Coatings

8.10.3 Polymeric Films

References

9 Carbohydrates

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Types

9.2.1 Reducing and Nonreducing Sugars

9.2.2 Monosaccharides

9.2.3 Oligosaccharides

9.2.3.1 Disaccharides

9.2.3.2 Trisaccharides

9.2.3.3 Tetrasaccharides

9.2.3.4 Pentasaccharides

9.2.4 Polysaccharides

9.2.4.1 Starch

9.2.4.2 Pectic Substances

9.2.4.3 Cellulose

9.2.4.4 Hemicelluloses

9.2.4.5 Inulin

9.2.5 Sugar Derivatives

9.2.5.1 Acid Sugars

9.2.5.2 Sugar Alcohols or Polyols

9.2.5.3 Phosphate Sugars

9.2.5.4 Glycosides

9.2.5.5 Sugar-Coated Nucleotides (Nucleotide Sugars)

9.3 Synthesis of Carbohydrates

9.3.1 Hexoses

9.3.2 Sucrose

9.3.3 Starch

9.3.4 Cellulose

9.3.5 Hemicelluloses

9.3.6 Pectic Substances

9.4 Changes During Fruit Development and Ripening

9.5 Interconversion of Carbohydrates

9.5.1 Degradation and Losses During Respiration

9.5.2 Degradation of Starch to Sugars

9.5.3 Conversion of Sugars to Starch

9.5.4 Conversion of Sucrose to Reducing Sugars

9.5.5 Increases in Cellulose

9.5.6 Degradation of Cellulose to Glucose

9.5.7 Solubilization of Pectins

9.5.7.1 Polygalacturonases

9.5.7.2 Pectin Methyl Esterases

9.5.7.3 β-Galactosidases

9.5.7.4 Galactanases

9.5.7.5 Rhamnogalacturonases

9.5.7.6 Xylanases

9.5.7.7 Xiloglucanases

9.6 Carbohydrates in Fruits and Vegetables, and Health Issues

9.6.1 The Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load

9.6.2 Insulin Index

9.6.3 Starch–Polyphenol Interactions

9.6.4 Fruits and Vegetables as Sources of Fiber

9.6.4.1 Dietary Fiber

9.6.4.2 Composition of Dietary Fiber

9.6.4.3 Dietary Fiber in Fruits and Vegetables

9.6.4.4 Physiological Effects on Human Health

9.6.4.5 Dietary Fiber–Phenolic Compound Interactions

9.6.4.6 Recommended Fiber Intake

9.7 Conclusions

Further Reading

10 Organic Acids

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Important Organic Acids in Different Fruits and Vegetables

10.3 Metabolic Pathways for Organic Acids in Horticultural Commodities

10.3.1 Synthesis of Organic Acids

10.3.2 Degradation of Organic Acids

10.3.3 Conversion Between Di- and Tricarboxylic Acids

10.3.3.1 The Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle in the Mitochondria

10.3.3.2 The Glyoxylate Cycle

10.3.4 Metabolism of Other Organic Acids

10.4 Organic Acids in C4 and CAM plants

10.5 Influence of Preharvest Factors on Organic Acid Accumulation in Horticultural Commodities

10.5.1 Temperature and Light

10.5.2 Mineral Nutrition

10.5.3 Water Availability

10.5.4 Source:Sink Ratio

10.6 Influence of Postharvest Factors on Organic Acid Accumulation in Horticultural Commodities

10.6.1 Irradiation

10.6.2 Modified Atmospheres

10.7 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

11 Pigments

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Chlorophylls

11.3 Carotenoids

11.4 Flavonoids

11.5 Betalains

11.6 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgment

References

Further Reading

12 Phenolic Compounds

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Structure, Classification, and Occurrence of Phenolic Compounds

12.3 Metabolism of Phenolic Compounds

12.3.1 Shikimic Acid Pathway for Phenolic Compounds Biosynthesis

12.3.2 Hydroxycinnamic and Hydroxybenzoic Acid Biosynthesis

12.3.3 Flavonoid Biosynthesis

12.3.4 Phenolic Compounds Transformation and Degradation

12.4 Influence of Postharvest Treatments on Phenolic Compounds Content in Fruits and Vegetables

12.4.1 Effect of Temperature

12.4.2 Effect of Modified Atmosphere

12.4.3 Effect of Light Irradiation

12.4.4 Effect of Phytohormones and Natural Compounds

12.5 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments

Further Reading

Structure, Classification, and Occurrence of PC

Metabolism of PC

Influence of Postharvest Treatments on PC Content in Fruits and Vegetables

13 Lipids

13.1 Brief Description of Lipid Classification and Metabolism

13.1.1 Definitions and Nomenclature

13.1.2 General Mechanism of Fatty Acid and Triacylglycerol Synthesis in Plants

13.1.3 Other Lipids of Interest

13.2 Fruits and Vegetables With Low (<10%) to Moderate (10%–40%) Lipid Content and Associated Heal

13.2.1 Health Effects

13.3 Fruits and Vegetables With High (>40%) Lipid Content and Associated Health Effects

13.3.1 Lipid Oxidation

13.3.2 Health Effects

13.4 Vegetable Oils

13.4.1 Health Effects

13.4.2 Vegetable Oils as Potential Fuel Sources

13.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

14 Texture

Highlights

14.1 Introduction and Components of the Texture in Fruits and Vegetables

14.1.1 Definition of Texture

14.1.2 Texture and Its Components

14.2 Structural, Physiological, and Biochemical Characteristics of Living Cells in Fruits and Vegeta

14.2.1 Types of Cells

14.2.2 Cell Wall: Strength and Elasticity

14.2.3 Cellular Arrangement, Density, Bonding, and Turgor

14.2.4 Pectic Substances, Hemicellulose, Cellulose, Proteins, and Lignin

14.2.5 Monosaccharides and Polysaccharides

14.3 Changes Over Time of the Main Components of Texture During Postharvest

14.3.1 Respiration

14.3.2 Ethylene

14.3.3 Water Loss

14.3.4 Ripening

14.3.5 Senescence

14.3.6 Dormancy

14.3.7 Physiological Disorders

14.4 Postharvest Treatments That can Influence Texture

14.4.1 Heat Treatment

14.4.2 Calcium

14.4.3 Others

14.5 Texture Measurements

14.5.1 Instrumental Methods

14.5.1.1 Destructive Instrumental Methods

14.5.1.2 Nondestructive Methods

14.5.2 Sensory Analysis Methods

14.6 Conclusions

References

15 Protein

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Nitrogen as a Primary Precursor of Protein in Plant

15.3 Biosynthesis of Amino Acids

15.4 Biosynthesis of Protein

15.5 Protein Deposition in Plant Organs

15.6 Protein Content as Affected by Pre- and Postharvest Factors

15.7 Fruits and Vegetables Rich in Protein

15.8 Health Aspects of Plant-Based Protein

15.9 Methods to Determine Total Protein Content in Fruits and Vegetables

15.10 Proteomic Analysis of Differentially Accumulated Proteins

References

Further Reading

16 Enzymes

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Enzyme Classification

16.3 Fruit Ripening

16.3.1 Role of Ethylene and Associated Enzymes During Fruit Ripening

16.4 Changes in Fruit Respiration During Ripening

16.4.1 Starch Degradation (Starch Phosphorylase, α1,6-Glucosidase, α- and β-Amylase)

16.4.2 TCA Cycle and Glyoxylate Cycle Are Responsible for Changes in Organic Acids

16.4.3 Sucrose Synthesis and Degradation

16.5 Role of Cell Wall-Degrading Enzymes in Fruit Ripening and Softening

16.5.1 Pectinases

16.5.2 Cellulases

16.5.3 Hemicellulases

16.5.4 Other Texture-Softening Enzymes

16.6 Flavor and Aroma Changes

16.6.1 β-Oxidation of Fatty Acids

16.6.2 Lipoxygenase Pathway

16.6.3 Amino Acid Degradation

16.6.4 Terpenes as Flavor and Aroma Compounds

16.7 Terpenes/Terpenoid Pathway

16.8 Color Changes and Associated Metabolic Pathways

16.8.1 Chlorophyll Degradation

16.8.2 Carotenoid Biosynthetic Pathway

16.8.3 Phenylpropanoid Biosynthetic Pathway

References

Further Reading

17 Vitamins

17.1 Introduction

17.2 The Multiple Roles of Vitamins in Fruits and Vegetables

17.3 Vitamin Occurrence and Diversity

17.3.1 Within Plant Tissues/Cellular Compartments

17.3.2 In Different Fruits and Vegetables

17.3.3 During Development and Ripening

17.3.4 At Postharvest

17.4 Genetic Control of Vitamins in Fruits and Vegetables

Acknowledgments

References

Further Reading

18 Flavors and Aromas

18.1 Introduction

18.1.1 Definitions of Odor, Aroma, Flavor, Taste, and Chemical Feelings

18.2 Components of the Flavor and Aroma of Fruits and Vegetables

18.2.1 Taste Components

18.2.2 Odor and Aroma Components

18.2.3 Chemical Feeling Factors and Their Components

18.3 Synthesis of the Main Biochemical Compounds Behind the Flavor of Fruits and Vegetables

18.3.1 Taste Compounds of Fruits and Vegetables

18.3.2 Odor and Aroma Compounds of Fruits and Vegetables

18.3.3 Chemical Feeling Compounds

18.4 Changes to the Main Biochemical Compounds During Ripening and Storage

18.4.1 Changes to Taste Compounds

18.4.2 Changes to Odor and Aroma Compounds

18.4.3 Changes to Chemical Feeling Compounds

18.4.3.1 Astringency Changes

18.4.3.2 Pungency Changes

18.5 Measurements of Flavor Components and Their Precursors

18.5.1 Instrumental Methods

18.5.1.1 Sample Preparation

18.5.1.2 Separation and Identification: Gas Chromatography and Gas Chromatography/Olfactometry

18.5.1.3 Electronic Nose

18.5.1.4 Innovative Instruments

18.5.2 Sensory Analysis Methods

18.5.2.1 Olfactometry

18.5.2.2 Descriptive Sensory Analysis

18.6 Conclusions

Further Reading

19 Physiological Responses to Stress

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Biotic and Abiotic Stresses

19.3 Biotic Stress

19.4 Abiotic Stress

19.5 Water Stress

19.5.1 Transpiration

19.5.2 Water Loss

19.6 Temperature Stress

19.6.1 Chilling Stress

19.6.2 Freezing Stress

19.6.3 Heat Stress

19.7 Low-Oxygen Atmosphere and High-Carbon-Dioxide Atmosphere

19.7.1 Low-Oxygen Atmosphere

19.7.2 High-Carbon-Dioxide Atmosphere

19.8 Ethylene and Nonethylene Volatiles

19.9 Light

19.10 Mechanical Stress

19.11 Oxidative Stress

19.12 Mineral Stress

19.13 Conclusion

References

Further Reading

20 Physiological and Biochemical Effects of Controlled and Modified Atmospheres

20.1 Introduction: A Brief History and Current Trends in Controlled and Modified Atmospheres

20.2 Practical Applications of Controlled and Modified Atmospheres

20.3 Low Oxygen Stress Physiology in Plants

20.4 Physiological and Molecular Responses of Fruits and Vegetables to Controlled and Modified Atmos

20.4.1 Effects of Low Oxygen Levels on Fruit Metabolism and Composition

20.4.2 Influence of Oxygen Level on Fruit Aroma Profile

20.5 Physiological Disorders Associated With Controlled and Modified Atmospheres Storage

20.6 Conclusions

References

21 Molecular Biology and Biotechnology of Horticultural Crops

21.1 A Look Into the Past, Present, and Future of Plant Food Production

21.2 Plant Genetic Engineering

21.3 Perspectives of Genetically Modified Organisms

21.4 Development of New Techniques to Modify the Plant Genome

21.5 Development of the Next-Generation DNA Sequencing Technologies

21.6 Bioinformatics as a Key Tool in Genomics and Transcriptomics Analyses

21.7 The Plant Genomics Era: The Current Status of Genomics and Transcriptomics in Horticultural Pro

21.8 Concluding Remarks

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