Orofacial Pain Biomarkers 1st edition by Jean Paul Goulet,Ana Velly 9783662539941 3662539942

Part I: Clinical and Epidemiological Aspects of Orofacial Pain

1: Orofacial Pain: Classification and Road Map to Clinical Phenotypes

1.1 Introduction

1.2 The Orofacial Region as a Unique Body Part

1.3 Type of Orofacial Pain

1.4 Chronicity and Orofacial Pain: An Evolving Concept

1.5 Terminology and Orofacial Pain Entities

1.6 Current State of Operational Classification Systems for Orofacial Pain Disorders

1.7 Common Chronic Orofacial Pain Entities and Clinical Phenotypes for Biomarker Research

1.7.1 TMD Myalgia

1.7.2 TMJ Arthralgia

1.7.3 Atypical Odontalgia (AO) or Persistent Dentoalveolar Pain Disorder (PDAP)

1.7.4 Burning Mouth Syndrome

1.7.5 Persistent Idiopathic Facial Pain

References

2: Comorbidities in Individuals with Orofacial Pain and Their Impact on Biomarkers

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Epidemiology of Orofacial Pain

2.3 Comorbidities Related to Orofacial Pain

2.3.1 Headaches

2.3.2 Widespread Pain and Fibromyalgia Syndrome

2.3.3 Neck and Back Pain

2.3.4 Visceral Comorbid Pain Conditions

2.3.5 Psychological Factors

2.4 Implications of Comorbidities on Biomarkers Identification

2.5 Clinical Implications of Comorbidities in Orofacial Pain

References

Part II: Mechansims of Chronic Orofacial Pain

3: Neurobiological Mechanisms of Chronic Orofacial Pain

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Overview of Orofacial Nociceptive Pathways and Mechanisms

3.2.1 Peripheral Processes

3.2.2 Central Pathways and Processes

3.2.2.1 Modulatory Processes and Influences

3.3 Chronic Orofacial Pain Mechanisms

3.3.1 Peripheral Processes

3.3.2 Central Processes

References

4: Oral and Craniofacial Pain: Contribution of Endogenous, Central Modulation Mechanisms

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Endogenous Modulation Mechanisms

4.2.1 Segmental Modulation: A Medullary Locus for Central Sensitization and Analgesia

4.3 Descending Modulation from the Brainstem

4.3.1 Diffuse Noxious Inhibitory Controls (DNIC)

4.3.2 DNIC and Counter-­stimulation-­Induced Analgesia

4.3.3 The Rostral Ventromedial Medulla (RVM)

4.3.4 The Cortex as a Widespread Source of Top-Down Modulation

4.3.4.1 Corticofugal Modulation of Trigeminal, Medullary Dorsal Horn Activities

4.3.4.2 Corticofugal Modulation, Maladaptive Changes, and Impaired Orofacial Functions

4.3.4.3 Corticotrigeminal Modulation and Migraine

4.3.4.4 Hypothalamic Regulation in Headaches: Main or Supporting Actor in the Pathogenesis?

4.3.4.5 The Paraventricular Hypothalamic Nucleus as a Major Source of Top-Down, Trigeminovascula

References

Part III: Biomarkers in Orofacial Pain

5: Neurophysiologic Markers of Neuropathic Orofacial Pain

5.1 Introduction to Neurophysiologic Diagnostics in Pain Patients

5.2 Neurophysiologic Markers of the Orofacial Large Fiber System

5.3 Neurophysiologic Markers of the Small Fiber System

5.4 Psychophysical Markers in Orofacial Pain

5.5 Markers of Altered Excitability Within the Neuraxis

References

6: Masticatory Muscle Pain Biomarkers

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Methods for Sampling and Analyzing Muscle Biomarkers

6.3 Muscle Pain Pathophysiology

6.4 Potential Biomarkers in Jaw Myalgia

6.4.1 Glutamate

6.4.2 Serotonin

6.4.3 Nerve Growth Factor

6.4.4 Bradykinin

6.4.5 TRPV1

6.4.6 Neuropeptides

6.4.7 Eicosanoids

6.4.8 Cytokines

6.4.9 Metabolites

6.5 Pain Evoked by Intramuscular Injection of Biomarkers in Humans

6.6 Tissue Levels of Biomarkers in Patients with Muscle Pain

6.7 Muscle Biomarkers Tissue Levels After Exercise

6.8 Muscle Biomarker Levels in Experimental Myalgia

References

Additional Reading

7: Molecular Temporomandibular Joint Pain Biomarkers

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Cytokines

7.2.1 Peripheral Cytokine Modulation of Pain

7.2.1.1 Direct Effects on Nociceptive Fibers via Cell-Surface Receptors

7.2.1.2 Indirect Effects on Nociceptors via Stimulation of Local Production of Other Cytokines

7.2.1.3 Pain/Hyperalgesia as a Part of the Illness Response

7.2.1.4 The Cholinergic Anti-�inflammatory Pathway

7.2.2 Cytokines as Clinical Biomarkers of Temporomandibular Joint Pain?

7.2.2.1 Tumor Necrosis Factor

7.2.2.2 Interleukin-1β

7.2.2.3 Interleukin-6

7.3 Serotonin

7.3.1 Serotonin as Clinical Biomarker of Temporomandibular Joint Pain?

7.4 Prostaglandin E2

7.5 Glutamate

7.6 Current or Potential Treatments of Temporomandibular Joint Pain

7.6.1 Cytokine Receptors

7.6.2 Serotonin Antagonists

References

8: Genetic Biomarkers of Orofacial Pain Disorders

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Genetics of the Major Persistent Orofacial Pain Disorders

8.2.1 Temporomandibular Disorder (TMD)

8.2.2 Trigeminal Postherpetic Neuralgia (TPHN)

8.2.3 Trigeminal Neuralgia

8.2.4 Burning Mouth Syndrome (BMS)

8.2.5 Paroxysmal Extreme Pain Disorder (PEPD)

References

9: Serum, Synovial, and Salivary Biomarkers for Orofacial Pain Conditions

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Biofluids

9.2.1 Blood Serum

9.2.1.1 Function

9.2.1.2 Composition

9.2.2 Synovial Fluid

9.2.2.1 Function

9.2.2.2 Composition

9.2.3 Saliva

9.2.3.1 Function

9.2.3.2 Composition

9.3 Serum, Synovial Fluid, and Saliva as Diagnostic Media

9.3.1 Biofluids in Disease Detection: Advantages and Disadvantages

9.3.1.1 Collection

9.3.1.2 Availability of Biomarkers

9.3.2 Comparative Analysis

9.3.2.1 Saliva Versus Serum

9.3.2.2 Synovial Fluid Versus Serum and Saliva

9.3.2.3 Factors Affecting Biomarkers Present

9.4 Future Directions

References

Part IV: Study Designs and Statistical Analysis for the Identification of Biomarkers, and Future Dir

10: Biomarkers in Epidemiologic Research: Definition, Classification, and Implication

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Biomarkers

10.3 Biomarkers Classification

10.4 Biomarkers Development and Analysis

10.4.1 Rationale

10.4.2 Study Population

10.4.3 Instrument to Assess Exploratory Biomarker

10.4.4 Assessment of Exploratory Biomarker

10.4.5 Statistical Analysis

10.4.6 Results

10.5 Use of Valid Biomarkers in Clinical Studies

References

11: Statistical Analysis in the Identification of Pain Biomarkers

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Two Basic Axioms for Modeling Pain Biomarker Data

11.3 Axiom 1: The True Model That Generates the Data Can Never Be Completely Correctly Specified

11.4 Axiom 2: The Choice of Surrogate Measures for Patient Pain Will Inevitably Determine the S

11.5 Defining the Scientific Question

11.5.1 The Basic Conundrum: Prediction or Causation?

11.5.2 Specifying the Question for Pain Biomarker Research

11.6 Identifying Causal Data-�Generating Models

11.6.1 Causal Models for Cross-­Sectional Data

References

12: Future Direction and Conclusion