PART I: THE MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT PROCESS
1. Educational Testing and Assessment: Context, Issues, and Trends
Educational Assessment: Barometer and Lever of Reform 3
Five Decades of Test-Based Educational Reform 4
Technological Advances in Testing and Assessment 11
Public Concern About Testing and Assessment 13
Summary 20
Learning Exercises 21 ? References 22 ? Further Reading 23
2. The Role of Measurement and Assessment in Teaching
Instructional Decisions Requiring Assessment Data 25
Assessment, Test, and Measurement 26
General Principles of Assessment 27
Assessment and the Instructional Process 29
Types of Assessment Procedures 32
Summary of Assessment Categories 40
Summary 40
Learning Exercises 43 ? References 43 ? Further Reading 44
3. Instructional Goals and Objectives: Foundation for Assessment
Instructional Objectives as Learning Outcomes 48
From Overly Specific Objectives to the Thinking Curriculum 50
Method of Stating Instructional Objectives 58
Summary 65
Learning Exercises 66 ? References 66 ? Further Reading 67
4. Validity
Nature of Validity 70
Major Considerations in Assessment Validation 71
Content Considerations 73
Construct Considerations 78
Assessment-Criterion Relationships 83
Consideration of Consequences 92
Factors Influencing Validity 94
Summary 100
Learning Exercises 102 ? References 102 ? Further Reading 103
5. Reliability and Other Desired Characteristics
Nature of Reliability 104
Determining Reliability by Correlation Methods 106
Standard Error of Measurement 115
Factors Influencing Reliability Measures 121
Reliability of Assessments Evaluated in Terms of a Fixed Performance Standard 125
Usability 129
Summary 131
Learning Exercises 132 ? References 133 ? Further Reading 133
PART II: CLASSROOM TESTS AND ASSESSMENTS
6. Planning Classroom Tests and Assessments
The Purpose of Classroom Testing and Assessment 135
Developing Specifications for Tests and Assessments 137
Selecting Appropriate Types of Items and Assessment Tasks 145
Considerations in Preparing Relevant Test Items and Assessment Tasks 153
Summary 162
Learning Exercises 163 ? References 164 ? Further Reading 164
7. Constructing Objective Test Items: Simple Forms
Short-Answer Items 166
True/False or Alternative-Response Items 173
Matching Exercises 179
Summary 185
Learning Exercises 186 ? References 186 ? Further Reading 186
8. Constructing Objective Test Items: Multiple-Choice Forms
Characteristics of Multiple-Choice Items 187
Uses of Multiple-Choice Items 189
Advantages and Limitations of Multiple-Choice Items 194
Suggestions for Constructing Multiple-Choice Items 197
Summary 208
Learning Exercises 209 ? Further Reading 209
9. Measuring Complex Achievement: The Interpretive Exercise
Nature of the Interpretive Exercise 211
Forms and Uses of the Interpretive Exercise 211
Advantages and Limitations of Interpretive Exercises 218
Suggestions for Constructing Interpretive Exercises 220
Summary 225
Learning Exercises 226 ? Further Reading 226
10. Measuring Complex Achievement: Essay Questions
Forms and Uses of Essay Questions 228
Summary Comparison of Learning Outcomes Measured 231
Advantages and Limitations of Essay Questions 231
Suggestions for Constructing Essay Questions 234
Scoring Criteria 239
Suggestions for Scoring Essay Questions 245
Summary 248
Learning Exercises 248 ? References 249 ? Further Reading 249
11. Measuring Complex Achievement: Performance-Based Assessments
Types of Performance-Based Assessment 251
Advantages and Limitations of Performance Assessments 256
Suggestions for Constructing Performance Tasks 258
Performance Criteria 261
Scoring Rubrics and Rating Scales 261
Checklists 272
Student Participation in Rating 274
Summary 276
Learning Exercises 277 ? References 277 ? Further Reading 277
12. Portfolios
What Qualifies as a Portfolio of Student Work? 280
Potential Strengths and Weaknesses of Portfolios 281
Purpose of Portfolios 283
Guidelines for Portfolio Entries 287
Guidelines and Students’ Role in Selection of Portfolio Entries and Self-Evaluation 295
Evaluation Criteria 296
Using Portfolios in Instruction and Communication 301
Summary 301
Learning Exercises 302 ? References 303 ? Further Reading 304
13. Assessment Procedures: Observational Techniques, Peer Appraisal, and Self-Report
Anecdotal Records 307
Student Judgments and Reports 313
Peer Appraisal 314
Self-Report Techniques 323
Attitude Measurement 324
Interest Inventories 326
Personality Measures 329
Summary 331
Learning Exercises 332 ? Further Reading 333
14. Assembling, Administering, and Appraising Classroom Tests and Assessments
Assembling the Classroom Test 335
Administering and Scoring Classroom Tests and Assessments 345
Appraising Classroom Tests and Assessments 348
Building a File of Effective Items and Tasks 361
Summary 363
Learning Exercises 364 ? References 364 ? Further Reading 365
15. Grading and Reporting
Functions of Grading and Reporting Systems 367
Types of Grading and Reporting Systems 369
Multiple Grading and Reporting Systems 373
Assigning Letter Grades 376
Record-Keeping and Grading Software 384
Conducting Parent-Teacher Conferences 385
Reporting Standardized Test Results to Parents 388
Summary 391
Learning Exercises 393 ? References 393 ? Further Reading 393
PART III: SELECTING AND USING PUBLISHED TESTS
16. Achievement Tests
Characteristics of Standardized Achievement Tests 395
Standardized Tests Versus Informal Classroom Tests 397
Standardized Achievement Test Batteries 399
Achievement Tests in Specific Areas 408
Customized Achievement Tests 413
Individual Achievement Tests 414
Summary 415
Learning Exercises 416 ? Further Reading 416
17. Aptitude Tests
Achievement and Aptitude Tests 417
Scholastic Aptitude and Learning Ability 420
Group Tests of Learning Ability 420
Individual Tests 427
Cautions in Interpreting and Using Learning Ability Scores 429
Culture-Fair Testing 430
Differential Aptitude Testing 432
Summary 435
Learning Exercises 436 ? References 437 ? Further Reading 437
18. Test Selection, Administration, and Use
Obtaining Information About Published Tests 439
Selecting Appropriate Tests 443
Administering Published Tests 447
Using Results of Published Tests 452
Summary 456
Learning Exercises 457 ? References 457 ? Further Reading 458
19. Interpreting Test Scores and Norms
Methods of Interpreting Test Scores 460
Grade Norms 464
Percentile Rank 468
Standard Scores 471
Profiles 479
Skill Analysis 481
Judging the Adequacy of Norms 483
Using Local Norms 485
Cautions in Interpreting Test Scores 485
Summary 487
Learning Exercises 489 ? References 490 ? Further Reading 490
APPENDIXES
APPENDIX A: Elementary Statistics
Organizing and Displaying Scores 492 ? Measures of Central Tendency 499 ? Measures of Variability 501 ? Coefficient of Correlation 505 ? Linear Regression Coefficients 509 ? A Final Caution 510 ? References 510
APPENDIX B: Professional Journals for Locating Measurement and Assessment Articles 512
APPENDIX C: Content Standards 514
References 514
APPENDIX D: Standards for Teacher Competence in Educational Assessment of Students 516
APPENDIX E: Test Publishers 523
APPENDIX F: Selected Published Tests 524
APPENDIX G: Taxonomy of Educational Objectives 526
References 532
APPENDIX H: Relating Assessment Procedures to Instructional Objectives
Relating Test Items to Instructional Objectives 533 ? Relating Performance Assessme
