Manual of Forensic Odontology 5th Edition by David Greene,David Williams 9781040081389 104008138X

1 History of Forensic Odontology

1.1 Coroner and Medical Examiner Systems

1.1.1 Significant Dates in the Evolution of U.S. Coronerand Medical Examiner Systems

1.1.2 Distribution of Medical Examiners and Coroners by State

1.2 Dental Identification

1.2.1 Agrippina the Younger Identifies Lollia Paulina, AD 49

1.2.2 Pliny the Elder Publishes Natural History, AD 77

1.2.3 First Earl of Shrewsbury Identified by His Herald, 1453

1.2.4 Charles the Bold Identified by His Page, 1477

1.2.5 Colonel Sir Peter Halket(t), 1758

1.2.6 Dr. Joseph Warren Identified by Paul Revere, 1776

1.2.7 First British Trial in Which Dentists Were Cited as Expert Witnesses, 1814

1.2.8 Caroline Walsh, 1831

1.2.9 Homicide at Harvard: Dr. George Parkman and Dr. John Webster, 1849

1.2.10 John Wilkes Booth, 1865 and 1869

1.2.11 Second Lieutenant Henry M. Harrington, 1885

1.2.12 Claudius Beaupied, Victim of the “Killer of the Little Shepherds,” 1897

1.2.13 Adolf Hitler, 1945

1.2.14 Henrietta Durand-Deacon, Final Victim of the “Acid Bath Murderer,” 1949

1.2.15 Exhumation of Lee Harvey Oswald, 1981

1.2.16 Czar Nicholas II, the Last Czar of Russia, 1991 and 2008

1.2.17 Ramses I, 2003

1.2.18 Queen Hatshepsut, 2007

1.3 Disaster Victim Identification

1.3.1 Bazar de la Charite, 1897

1.3.2 Disaster Relief Act of 1974 (Public Law 93-288)

1.3.3 Jonestown, 1978

1.3.4 John Wayne Gacy, 1978

1.3.5 American Airlines Flight 191, 1979

1.3.6 Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team (DMORT), 1992

1.3.7 Waco Siege, 1993

1.3.8 Oklahoma City Bombing, 1995

1.3.9 World Trade Center, New York; The Pentagon, Virginia, and Shanksville, Pennsylvania, 2001

1.3.10 Hurricane Katrina, 2005

1.3.11 Haiti Earthquake, 2010

1.4 Bitemarks and Bitemark Cases

1.4.1 William I of England, 1027–1087

1.4.2 George Burroughs and the Salem Witch Trials, 1692

1.4.3 Ansil L. Robinson Murder Trial, 1870

1.4.4 Doyle v. Texas, 1954

1.4.5 Public Prosecutor (Norway) v. Torgersen, 1958

1.4.6 Crown (Scotland) v. Hay, 1967

1.4.7 Illinois v. Johnson, 1972

1.4.8 California v. Marx, 1975

1.4.9 Illinois v. Milone, 1976

1.4.10 Florida v. Bundy, 1979

1.4.11 Florida v. Stewart, 1979

1.4.12 State of Wisconsin v. Robert Lee Stinson, 1984

1.4.13 Louisiana v. Willie Jackson, 1986

1.4.14 Oklahoma v. Wilhoit, 1987

1.4.15 Commonwealth of Pennsylvania v. Kunco, 1991

1.4.16 New York v. Roy Brown, 1992

1.4.17 Arizona v. Krone, 1992 and 1996

1.4.18 Michigan v. Moldowan and Cristini, 1991

1.4.19 Illinois v. Young and Hill, 1992

1.4.20 Mississippi v. Brewer, 1995, and Mississippi v. Brooks, 1992

1.4.21 West Memphis Three, 1994, Alford Plea 2011

1.4.22 New Jersey v. Jesse K. Timmendequas, 1997: Megan’s Law

1.4.23 Massachusetts v. Edmund Burke, 1998

1.4.24 State of New York v. James O’Donnell, 1998

1.5 Age Estimation

1.5.1 Louis XVII “The Lost Dauphin,” 1894

1.5.2 Massler and Shour, 1941 and 1944

1.5.3 Moorrees, Fanning and Hunt, 1963

1.5.4 Mincer, Harris, and Berryman, 1993

1.5.5 King Tutankhamen, 2005

1.6 Abuse and Neglect

1.6.1 Mary Ellen Wilson, 1874

1.7 Forensic Odontology; Books and Chapters in Books

Acknowledgments

References

2 Forensic Pathology

2.1 Forensic Pathology Defined

2.2 Death Investigation

2.2.1 History

2.2.2 Scene Investigation

2.2.3 Evidence Collection

2.3 Changes after Death

2.3.1 Rigor Mortis

2.3.2 Livor Mortis (Hypostasis)

2.3.3 Algor Mortis (Postmortem Cooling)

2.3.4 Tissue Decomposition

2.3.5 Stomach Contents

2.4 Time of Death

2.5 Cause of Death

2.5.1 Natural Deaths

2.5.2 Blunt Force Trauma

2.5.3 Sharp Force Trauma

2.5.4 Gunshot Wounds

2.5.5 Asphyxia

2.5.6 Fire

2.5.7 Drugs

2.6 Manner of Death

2.7 Autopsy Reports

2.8 Death Certificates

2.9 Professional Relationships

References

3 Science and Forensic Odontology

3.1 Definition of Science

3.1.1 Perspective on Science

3.1.2 Scientific Method

3.2 Experimental Design and Terms of Methodology

3.2.1 Bias

3.2.2 Error

3.2.3 Standard Deviation and Variance

3.2.4 Other Considerations with Regard to Error: Accuracy versus Precision

3.2.5 P Value

3.2.6 Correlation/Nonuniformity

3.3 Types of Clinical Studies: Randomized Control Trials

3.3.1 Single Blind Study

3.3.2 Double-Blind Study

3.4 Validity: Sensitivity and Specificity

3.4.1 Sensitivity

3.4.2 Specificity

3.5 Science in the Courtroom

3.6 Landmark Cases for Admissibility of Scientific Evidence in the Courtroom

3.6.1 Frye Test

3.6.2 Daubert Standard

3.7 Qualifications of an Expert Witness with Regard to Scientific Basis

3.7.1 Specialty Certification

3.8 How Science Is Viewed in the Courtroom—CSIEffect: Expectations of a Jury

3.9 Challenges to and Support of Forensic Odontology Science

3.9.1 Challenges

3.9.2 2009 National Research Council Report on Forensic Sciences

3.9.3 Research Funding Sources

3.9.3.1 American Board of Forensic Odontology

3.9.3.2 American Society of Forensic Odontology

3.9.3.3 ASFO, Dr. Gerald Reynolds Research Grant for New Investigators Dr. Reynolds was a strong proponent for employing the scientific method in testing new theories in forensic odontology and initiated this grant to encourage members of the ASFO to conduct peer-reviewed research. The $500 grant is available to ASFO members for their first research project in the field of forensic dentistry. For more information, refer to the ASFO’s website: www.asfo.org.

3.9.3.4 Forensic Science Foundation: Acorn Grants

3.9.3.5 Forensic Science Foundation: Lucas Grants

3.9.3.6 Forensic Science Foundation: Jan Grant Award

3.9.3.7 NIJ/FSF Forensic Science Student Research Grant

3.9.3.8 Grants.gov

3.9.3.9 National Institute of Justice

3.9.3.10 Midwest Forensic Resource Center

3.10 Needed Research

3.10.1 Bitemark and Patterned Injury Research

3.10.2 Identification Research

3.10.3 Mass Fatality Incident Management Research

3.10.4 Victim Abuse Research

3.10.5 Witness Consultation and Testimony Research

3.10.6 Age Estimation

3.10.7 Facial Approximation Research

References

4 Dental Identification

4.1 Human Identification

4.1.1 Methods of Human Identification

4.1.1.1 Visual

4.1.1.2 Fingerprints

4.1.1.3 Anthropology/Radiology

4.1.1.4 DNA

4.1.1.5 Dental

4.1.2 Postmortem Dental Profiling

4.1.3 Burned and Incinerated Remains

4.1.4 Cremated Remains

4.2 Tooth Numbering Systems (Dental Notation, Dental Nomenclature)

4.2.1 Introduction

4.2.2 Various Systems

4.2.2.1 Universal Numbering System

4.2.2.2 FDI (Federation Dentaire Internationale)

4.2.2.3 Palmer Notation System

4.3 Dental and Nondental Comparison

4.3.1 Photographic Facial Superimposition

4.3.2 Facial Reconstruction

4.3.3 Frontal Sinus Pattern Radiographic Comparisons

4.3.4 DNA

4.3.5 Rugae

4.3.6 Cheiloscopy

4.3.7 Dental Appliances

4.3.7.1 Denture Labeling Law

4.3.7.2 Denture Teeth Molds, Size, Shape, Color

4.3.7.3 Orthodontic Fixed Appliances

4.3.8 Dental Implants

4.4 Postmortem Dental Data

4.4.1 Collection of Postmortem Data

4.4.1.1 Postmortem Dental Charting Forms

4.4.1.2 Examination Procedures

4.4.1.3 Photography

4.4.1.4 Radiography

4.4.1.5 Viewable Remains

4.4.1.6 Nonviewable Remains

4.4.1.7 Dental Examination

4.5 Antemortem Dental Data

4.5.1 Presumptive Identification

4.5.2 Locating Antemortem Dental Records

4.5.2.1 Nontraditional Sources of Antemortem Dental Information

4.5.3 What Antemortem Dental Records Should Be Requested

4.5.4 Release of Dental Records and Chain of Custody

4.5.5 Antemortem Record Form

4.6 Comparison

4.6.1 Dental Features for Comparison

4.6.2 Statistical and Mathematic/Algorithm Methods

4.6.3 Dental Identification Guidelines

4.6.4 Report Writing

4.7 Advanced Methods of Dental Materials Evidence Analysis

4.7.1 Challenges to and Limitations of Traditional Methods

4.7.1.1 Radiopacity

4.7.2 Methods of Detection and Analysis

4.7.2.1 Visible Light Fluorescence

4.7.2.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy

4.7.2.3 X-Ray Fluorescence

References

5 Dental, Oral, and Maxillofacial Radiographic Features of Forensic Interest

5.1 Introduction

5.1.1 Purpose and Scope

5.2 Radiographic Techniques Used in Forensic Identification

5.2.1 Dental Radiographs

5.2.2 Medical Imaging

5.3 Classification of Radiographic Features Used in Forensic Identification

5.3.1 Dental Structures: Abnormalities

5.3.1.1 Coronal, Pulpal, and Root Anomalies

5.3.1.2 Variations in Tooth Size

5.3.1.3 Variations in Tooth Number

5.3.1.4 Variations in Tooth Location and Orientation

5.3.2 Osseous Structures: Anatomical

5.3.3 Osseous Structures: Abnormalities

5.3.3.1 Radiolucent

5.3.3.2 Mixed Radiolucent or Radiopaque

5.3.3.3 Radiopaque

5.3.3.4 Other Radiographic Anomalies

5.4 Discussion

5.5 Conclusions

References

6 Disaster Victim Identification

6.1 Definitions and Types of Disasters

6.2 National and International Agencies and Teams

6.3 Disaster Sites and Site Management Issues

6.3.1 Notification and Assessment by Medical Examiners and Coroners

6.3.2 Temporary Morgue Location

6.3.3 Search and Recovery

6.3.4 Security and Safety

6.4 Establishing a DVI Morgue Operation (DMORT Model)

6.4.1 Components of Mortuary Operations

6.4.1.1 Decontamination

6.4.1.2 Reception/Registration

6.4.1.3 Fingerprint

6.4.1.4 Radiography

6.4.1.5 Pathology/Autopsy

6.4.1.6 Anthropology

6.4.1.7 Dental

6.4.1.8 DNA

6.4.1.9 Embalming/Casketing

6.4.1.10 Body Storage

6.4.1.11 Clerical or Information Resource Center

6.5 Protocol for a Local or State DVI Dental Section

6.5.1 Formation of a Dental Identification Team

6.5.2 Dental Section Team Leader

6.5.3 Postmortem Dental Section

6.5.4 Antemortem Dental Section

6.5.5 Dental Comparison Section

6.5.6 Dental Examination Supplies

6.5.7 Morgue Shifts

6.6 Portable Dental X-Ray Generator

6.7 Digital Dental Radiography Sensors

6.8 Computer-Assisted Dental Identification Software

6.8.1 CAPMI

6.8.2 WinID3

6.8.3 DVI System International

6.8.4 UVIS/UDIM

6.9 Technological Advances in Dental Identification/Flight 3407

References

7 Missing and Unidentified Persons

7.1 Introduction

7.2 National Crime Information Center/National Dental Image/Information Repository

7.2.1 National Crime Information Center Background

7.2.2 National Dental Image/Information Repository

7.2.3 Dental Coding Workshops

7.3 Laws Covering the Handing of Missing and Unidentified Persons

7.3.1 H.R. 1300: Billy’s Law

7.3.2 Jennifer’s Law

7.3.3 Kristen’s Law (Public Law #106–468)

7.4 Other Resources Trainings and Government Agencies

7.4.1 NCIC/NDIR Sponsored Training Sessions

7.4.2 National Missing and Unidentified Persons System (NamUs)

7.4.2.1 History of NamUs

7.4.2.2 Missing and Unidentified Persons Database

7.4.2.3 NamUs Training

7.4.3 The National Center of Missing and Exploited Children

7.4.4 Violent Criminal Apprehension Program

7.4.5 Private Sector and State Agencies

7.4.5.1 The DOE Network

7.4.5.2 Let’s Bring Them Home/National Center for Missing Adults

7.4.5.3 Florida Unidentified Decedents Database

7.4.5.4 California Missing Persons

7.4.6 Social Media

7.4.7 International Agencies

7.4.7.1 International Criminal Police Organization

7.4.7.2 Canadian Police Information Centre

7.5 Dental Information in Missing and Unidentified Cases

7.6 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

Disclaimer

References

8 Dental Age Estimation

8.1 Introduction

8.1.1 Purpose and Value

8.1.2 Scientific Rationale

8.1.3 Statistical Basis for Dental Age Estimation

8.1.4 Age Estimation Tools

8.2 Formation and Growth Techniques

8.2.1 Fetal Dental Age Estimation

8.2.2 Child Dental Age Estimation

8.2.3 Adolescent Age Estimation

8.3 Postformation Techniques

8.3.1 Historical Review

8.3.2 Adult Dental Age Estimation Techniques

8.3.2.1 Johanson Sectioning (1971)

8.3.2.2 Maples (1978)

8.3.2.3 Lamendin et al. (1992)

8.3.2.4 Prince and Ubelaker (2002)

8.3.2.5 Bang and Ramm (1970)

8.3.2.6 Kvaal et al. (1995)

8.4 Biochemical Techniques

8.4.1 Amino Acid Racemization

8.4.2 Radioactive 14C

8.5 Dental Age Estimation Guidelines and Standards

8.6 Summary

References

9 Bitemarks

9.1 Introduction

9.2 History

9.3 State of the Science

9.3.1 Recognition of Bitemarks

9.3.2 ABFO Bitemark Terminology

9.3.3 General Considerations and Need for Bitemark Analysis

9.3.4 Scientific Basis for Bitemark Analysis and Legal Testimony

9.4 Bitemark Analysis/Bitemark Comparisons

9.4.1 Bitemark Analysis Guidelines

9.4.1.1 Bitemarks

9.4.1.2 Biters

9.5 Limitations of and Appropriate Use of Bitemark Analysis

9.6 Bitemark Pattern Recognition and Collection from Humans and Inanimate Objects: Noninvasive Analysis

9.6.1 Written Request

9.6.2 Salivary Trace Evidence

9.7 Photographic Documentation of Bitemarks

9.7.1 Basic Equipment: Digital Cameras

9.7.2 Lenses

9.7.3 Flash Accessories

9.7.4 Other Desirable Accessories

9.8 Standard Photographic Views

9.8.1 Orientation Photos

9.8.2 Close-Up Working Photographs

9.9 Image Management and Storage

9.9.1 File Acquisition and File Types

9.9.2 Digital Image Storage

9.9.3 Image Enhancement

9.9.4 Plug-Ins

9.10 Three-Dimensional Evidence

9.10.1 Three-Dimensional Evidence Modeling

9.10.2 Stereolithography in Forensic Dentistry

9.11 Bitemark Impressions

9.11.1 Injury Impression Technique

9.11.2 Study Casts

9.12 Invasive Analysis

9.12.1 Tissue Incision, Excision, and Preservation

9.12.2 Transillumination

9.13 Data Collection from Suspected Biter(s)

9.14 Advanced Photographic Techniques

9.14.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum and Photography

9.14.2 Alternate Light Imaging (Fluorescent Photography)

9.14.2.1 Alternate Light Imaging Protocol

9.14.3 Reflective UVA Ultraviolet Photography

9.14.4 Infrared Photography

9.15 Analysis and Comparison of the Evidence

9.15.1 Description of the Injury

9.15.2 Description of the Dentition

9.15.3 Size Relationship Analysis

9.16 Comparison Techniques

9.16.1 Incisal Plane

9.16.2 Direct Comparison

9.16.3 Indirect Comparison

9.16.3.1 Overlay

9.16.3.2 Metric Analysis

9.16.3.3 Digital Analysis

9.16.3.4 Microscopy, Computerized Axial Tomography, and 3-D Scanning

9.16.3.5 Comparison Techniques and Conclusions

9.17 Case Opinion

Addendum: ABFO Guidelines and Standards*

ABFO Guidelines for Investigative and Final Bitemark Reports

Introduction

Inventory of Evidence Received

Inventory of Evidence Collected

Opinion Regarding the Nature of the Patterned Injury or Injuries

Methods of Analysis

Results of Analyses

Opinion

Disclaimer

ABFO Bitemark Analysis Guidelines

Description of Bitemark

Methods of Comparing Exemplars to Bitemarks*

ABFO Bitemark Terminology Guidelines

Component Injuries Seen in Bitemarks

A Characteristic

Bitemark Definitions

Describing the Bitemark

Variations

Terms Indicating Degree Of Confidence That an Injury Is a Bitemark

Descriptions and Terms Used to Relate a Suspected Biter to a Bitemark*

ABFO Standards for “Bitemark Terminology”

ABFO Bitemark Case Review Policy

References

10 Animal Bitemarks

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Insects

10.3 Aquatic Animals (Sharks, Crabs, Shrimp, Fish, Crawfish, Turtles)

10.3.1 Sharks

10.4 Reptiles (Alligators, Snakes)

10.4.1 Alligators

10.4.2 Snakes

10.5 Mammals

10.5.1 Carnivores

10.6 Canine Bite Data

10.6.1 Dog Bite Statistics

10.6.2 Dog Bite and Bitemark Liability

10.6.3 Dog Bite Injuries

10.6.4 Dog Bitemark Hierarchy

10.6.5 Dog Bite-Related Fatalities

10.7 Comparative Dental Anatomy

10.7.1 Canine Dentitions (Dogs)

10.7.2 Feline Dentition (Cats)

10.7.3 Ursine Dentitions (Bears)

10.7.4 Rodent Dentition (Rats)

10.8 Data Collection in Animal Bitemark Cases

10.9 Comparison Techniques

10.10 Abuse

10.11 Case Examples

10.11.1 Case Example: Human or Animal Attack?

10.11.2 Case Example: Guilty or Not?

10.11.3 Case Example: Egregious Mistakes

10.11.4 Case Example: High-Profile Dog Fighting Case

10.11.5 Other Case Examples

10.12 Summary

10.13 Lessons Learned and Recommendations for Animal Casework

Acknowledgments

References

11 Abuse and Violence

11.1 Introduction

11.1.1 Overview

11.1.2 Early Dental Literature

11.1.3 Dental Team’s Role

11.2 Child Abuse

11.2.1 Physical Abuse

11.2.2 Exploitation

11.2.3 Sexual Abuse

11.2.4 Emotional Abuse

11.2.5 Neglect or Deprivation

11.2.6 Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy

11.2.7 Risk Factors for Child Abuse

11.2.8 Conditions and Practices That Mimic Abuse

11.2.9 Who Are the Abusers

11.2.10 What to Look For

11.2.11 Prevention of Child Abuse

11.2.11.1 Child Abuse Prevention Councils

11.2.11.2 Child Death Review Teams

11.3 Intimate Partner Violence

11.3.1 IPV Types

11.3.2 Dental Team Awareness and Action Plan

11.3.3 RADAR (A Domestic Violence Intervention Program)

11.4 Mistreatment of the Elderly

11.4.1 Incidence and Indicators of Elderly Abuse

11.4.2 Categories of Elder Abuse

11.4.3 Reasons for Underreporting

11.4.4 Signs Mistaken for Abuse

11.4.5 Signs of Malnutrition

11.4.6 Follow-Up Care

11.5 Abuse of the Disabled

11.6 Abuse of Pregnant Women and Prenatal Abuse

11.7 Conclusion

11.8 Resources

References

12 Jurisprudence and Expert Witness Testimony

12.1 The U.S. Legal System

12.1.1 History and Terminology

12.1.2 Court Systems

12.1.3 Application of Law in Cases

12.2 Criminal Law

12.3 Civil Law

12.4 Adversarial System of Law

12.5 The Dentist as a Witness

12.5.1 Fact Witness

12.5.2 Expert Witness

12.6 Legal Terminology

12.6.1 Subpoena

12.6.2 Expert Witness Qualification and Voir Dire

12.7 Expert Witness Testimony

12.7.1 Expert Witness Immunity and Liability

12.7.2 Expert Witness Liability

12.8 Rules of Evidence

12.9 Tips for Expert Witnesses

12.9.1 Cross-Examination

12.9.2 Expert Witness Relationship with Case Counsel

References

13 Organized Forensic Dentistry

13.1 Introduction

13.2 American Organizations

13.2.1 American Society of Forensic Odontology

13.2.2 American Academy of Forensic Sciences

13.2.3 American Board of Forensic Odontology

13.3 International Organizations

13.3.1 International Association for Identification

13.3.2 International Organization for Forensic Odonto-Stomatology

13.3.3 British Association for Forensic Odontology

13.3.4 British Association for Human Identification

13.3.5 Australian Society of Forensic Odontology

13.4 Courses in Forensic Dentistry

13.4.1 Southwest Symposium on Forensic Dentistry

13.4.2 Annual Forensic Dental Identification and Emerging Technologies

13.4.3 Forensic Dentistry Program, McGill University

13.4.4 Fellowship in Forensic Odontology, UTSHCSA

13.4.5 Forensic Odontology in a Medical Examiner’s Office

13.4.6 Forensic Science, Tufts University

13.4.7 American Board of Forensic Odontology Workshops

14 Becoming Involved in Forensic Odontology

14.1 Introduction

14.2 Forensic Dentistry Organizations

14.2.1 American Society of Forensic Odontology

14.2.2 International Organization of Forensic Odonto-Stomatology

14.2.3 American Academy of Forensic Sciences—Odontology Section

14.2.3.1 Website

14.2.3.2 Annual Meeting

14.2.3.3 Journal of Forensic Sciences

14.2.4 American Board of Forensic Odontology

14.2.4.1 Website Resources Available to Nonmembers

14.2.4.2 Website Resources Available Only to Diplomates

14.2.5 International Association of Identification

14.2.5.1 Website

14.2.6 American College of Forensic Examiners International

14.3 Courses on Forensic Dentistry

14.4 Establishing a Relationship with Medico/Legal Agencies

14.4.1 Medical Examiners and Coroners

14.4.2 Dental Identification Teams

14.4.2.1 Disaster Mortuary Operational Response Team (DMORT)

14.4.2.2 Kenyon International

14.4.2.3 County and State Dental Identification Teams

14.4.3 Domestic Violence (Child/Partner/Adult) Agencies

14.4.4 Legal Professionals

14.4.5 Law Enforcement

14.4.5.1 NCIC Missing Persons Database

14.4.5.2 National Dental Image Repository

14.4.5.3 NamUs

14.4.6 Insurance Companies

14.5 Curriculum Vitae

14.6 Present Lectures on Forensic Dentistry

14.7 Closing Remarks on How to Get Involved with Forensic Dentistry

14.8 Recommended Forensic Odontology Equipment Lists

14.8.1 Dental Identification and Bite Marks

14.8.2 Dental Identification

14.8.3 Bite Mark Evidence Collection