Climate Change and Aviation Issues Challenges and Solutions 1st edition by Stefan Gössling,Paul Upham 1136569669 9781136569661

1 Introduction: Aviation and Climate Change in Context

The age of aviation

Aviation and climate change

Turbulent times ahead: Emission trading and oil prices

The need for an integrated perspective

Part I Aviation and Atmosphere

Part II Drivers and Trends

Part III Socio-economics and Politics

Part IV Mitigation

Note

References

Part I Aviation and Atmosphere

2 Aviation and Climate Change: The Science

Introduction

Emission trends

Climate concepts and metrics

Effects of aviation on radiative forcing and climate

Overview

Carbon dioxide

Effects of nitrogen oxides on ozone and methane

Water vapour

Particles – sulphate, black carbon, organic

Persistent linear contrails and aircraft-induced cirrus

Overall RF and climate response from aviation

Mitigation: Technological and policy options and the complication of the atmosphere

Technology

Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

3 Calculating Emissions and Radiative Forcing

The quest for metrics and data

Carbon dioxide emissions

Emission inventories

Fleet or route emission

Radiative Forcing

Gwp

Rfi

Agwp

Methodological recommendations

Conclusions and research recommendations

References

4 Aviation in a Low-carbon EU

Introduction

Global climate targets

Aviation trends

Eu Emissions Trading Scheme

Carbon budgets

Aviation emission scenarios

Aviation emission baselines

Short-term

Medium to long term

Economic analysis

Discussion and conclusions

Current aviation emissions are significant

Eu aviation scenarios within a 450ppmv budget

Aviation remains privileged

Conclusion

Notes

References

Part II Drivers and Trends

5 Low-cost Aviation

Introduction

From regulation to open skies

The emergence of low-cost carriers

The business model of low-cost airlines

Effects on demand and traffic

The destination perspective

Conclusion: Low-cost aviation – a Janus-faced business

References

6 Hypermobile Travellers

Introduction

Evidence of hypermobility

Who are the hypermobile travellers? A case study in France

The emergence of hypermobile travel patterns

Conclusions: Hypermobility and climate change

Note

References

7 Airline Trends in Europe: Network Consolidation and the Mainstreaming of Low-cost Strategies

Introduction

Changes in long-haul coverage

Dependence upon a single airline or alliance group

Potential winners and losers among European cities and airports from international airline alliance formation

Future of the global alliances and implications for European hubs

Airline service at second-tier cities

Airline restructuring

Raising labour productivity and outsourcing more services

More use of regional aircraft

Revising pricing and removing minimum stays on low fares

Charging for catering or reducing free provision

Abandoning business class

Reducing distribution costs

Increasing aircraft utilization

Setting up a low-cost subsidiary

Conclusions

Note

References

Part III Socio-economics and Politics

8 Aeropolitics and Economics of Aviation Emissions Mitigation

Introduction

Aeropolitics: An introduction and review

The economics of airline networks

Aviation and emissions

Politics, public policy and aviation emissions: The EU ETS

Conclusion

References

9 Aviation and Economic Development: The Implications of Environmental Costs on Different Airline Business Models and Flight Networks

Introduction

Engine emission charges at airports

Environmental charge mechanism: A generic systematic approach

Methods for estimating engine emissions and noise social costs

Engine emission social costs

Noise social costs

The impacts of environmental costs on air-passenger demand for different airline business models

Market selection

Aircraft engine emissions and noise social costs for the cases

Air fares and demand elasticities

Empirical results

Summary

The environmental costs of two patterns of airline service, hub-to-hub and hub bypass

Hub-and-spoke versus direct flight

Market selection

Aircraft engine emission and noise social costs for the cases

Empirical results

Summary

The implications of aircraft engine emissions costs on the operating costs of Asian airlines

Market selection

Aircraft engine emission social costs for the cases

Implications for airline operating costs

Summary

Conclusions

Notes

References

10 Air Freight: Trends and Issues

Introduction: The increased importance of air freight

The global value chain of air freight

Changing general conditions: Customer requirements, new technologies and deregulation

Freight forwarders, airlines and integrators: Participants in the goods chain

World traffic junctions: Airports

Air freight, reorganizing and traffic: A case study

Conclusions: Air freight and climate change

Acknowledgement

Notes

References

11 Practice(s) and Ratchet(s): A Sociological Examination of Frequent Flying

Introduction

The context of UK emissions reduction targets and aviation growth

Practice theory and (un)sustainable consumption

Applying, extending, developing practice theory: The specific case of frequent flying

Trophy tourism

Last-chance tourism

When the exotic becomes everyday, and flying becomes routine, we come full circle to ordinary consumption

Groups on the move

Coming home – to talk or not to talk?

Travel bores?

The rising norms and standards of occasion and celebration

Flying trends: Exotic and mundane, but still the preserve of the rich

Frequent holidaying

Short breaks

Activity holidays

Ratchets

Ratcheting up?

First fly

Budget airlines and penny flights

Schools standards and curricula

Ratcheting down?

(Dis)comfort and the flying experience

Upper limits

Discourses of environmental concern

Conclusions and implications for theory and climate policy

References

12 Aviation Coalitions: Drivers of Growth and Implications for Carbon Dioxide Emissions Reduction

Introduction

Growth coalitions: Governance for aviation expansion

A national aviation growth agenda

Commissioning an economic case for expansion

Strategic use of airport master plans

Assistance from local authorities and agencies

Sectoral partnerships

Industry-wide environmental performance

Capacity constraint relief projects

Single technology innovations

Evidence of coalitions in aviation discourse

Aviation growth equals economic growth

Technological innovation equals reduced climate change impacts

‘EU ETS good (if properly designed), APD bad’

Cooperation and conflict in the coalition

Addressing the environmental agenda: Sustaining aviation, not sustainable aviation

Conclusion

Acknowledgements

Notes

References

Part IV Mitigation

13 Technical and Management Reduction Potentials

Introduction

History and future of aviation fuel efficiency

Historical analysis of fuel efficiency

Fuel efficiency forecast

Limitations of aircraft technology

Identification of some promising technologies1

Development and fleet renewal

Growth in air travel demand

Obstacles and impediments

Operational measures to reduce radiative forcing

Improving fuel efficiency using air traffic management measures

Reducing radiative impacts of aviation through cruise altitude selection

Eco-efficiency and a strategy for air transport

Conclusions

Note

References

14 Biofuels, Aviation and Sustainability: Prospects and Limits

Introduction

Climate change context

Non-biofuel alternatives to mineral kerosene

Biodiesel and biokerosene

Is there enough land?

Land for carbon sequestration

Land for biofuel production

Should we produce biofuel on this scale?

The environmental performance of biofuels

Energy balance

Environmental impacts

The role of sustainability certification

Making a decision on biofuels

Conclusions

Notes

References

15 Voluntary Carbon Offsetting for Air Travel

Introduction

Outline of voluntary carbon markets

Producing carbon commodities

Emissions credit standards

Project types, sizes and locations

 Consuming carbon credits 

Problems with offsetting

Issues with projects and project type

Criticisms of offsetting in principle

Conclusions

References

16 Aviation and Climate Change: Assessment of Policy Options

Introduction

The context of aviation and climate policy

Types of policy approach

Regulatory approaches

Market-based approaches

Environmental taxes

Emissions charges

Subsidies

Tradable permits

Voluntary measures

Evaluation of policy options

Conclusion

References

17 Conclusion