Airport and Aviation Security US Policy and Strategy in the Age of Global Terrorism 1st edition by Bartholomew Elias 1040081649 9781040081648

Chapter 1 Pre-9/11 Threats to Aviation Security and the U.S. Policy Response

The Significance of Aviation Terrorism

The Late 1960s and Early 1970s: The Dawn of the Age of Global Terrorism

Hijackings Tied to Middle Eastern Terrorist Organizations

The Dawson’s Field Hijackings

The U.S. Response to Overseas Terrorist Hijackings

The International Response to Terrorist Hijackings

The Period of Hijacking Contagion

Escalating Violence Prompts FAA Action

The Debate over Passenger Screening

The Debate over Aviation Security Roles and Responsibilities

The Looming Menace of Aircraft Bombings

The 1980s: The Shifting Threat

The TWA Flight 847 Hijacking

Escalating Violence and Terrorist Animosity toward the United States

Aerial Suicides and Airplanes as Missiles

U.S. Initiatives to Improve International Aviation Security

The Escalating Threat of Aircraft Bombings

The Bombing of Pan Am Flight 103

The President’s Commission on Aviation Security and Terrorism.

The Aviation Security Improvements Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-604)

The 1990s: The Failure to Imagine and Adequately Prepare

The Gore Commission Recommendations Regarding Aviation Security

Aviation Security Provisions in the FAA Reauthorization Act of 1996 (P. L. 104-264)

Impact of the Gore Commission on Aviation Security

Lingering Concerns and Persisting Vulnerabilities

The Airport Security and Improvement Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-528)

Hijackings as a Forgotten Threat

References

Chapter 2 The 9/11 Attacks and the Ensuing Policy Debate

Precursors to 9/11

Bojinka Plot

Rising Threat of Al Qaeda

Buildup to 9/11

Preattack Phase: Terrorists in our Midst

9/11 Attacks

Tactical Response on September 11, 2001

DOT Rapid Response Teams

Conclusions and Recommendations of the Airport Security Rapid Response Team

Conclusions and Recommendations of the Aircraft Security Rapid Response Team

Congressional Response to the 9/11 Attacks

Expanding the Federal Role in Aviation Security Operations

Post-9/11 Debate over Federalizing Passenger Screening

Aviation and Transportation Security Act (ATSA, P.L. 107-71)

Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296)

Vision 100: The Century of Aviation Reauthorization Act (P.L. 108-176)

References

Chapter 3 Policy Refinement in Response to the Evolving Terrorist Threat

The 9/11 Commission and Its Impact on Aviation Security Policy

Aviation Security-Related Recommendations of the 9/11 Commission

Enhancing Passenger Prescreening

Improving Measures to Detect Explosives on Passengers

Addressing Human Factor Considerations at Screening Checkpoints

Expediting Deployment of In-Line Baggage Screening Systems

Intensifying Efforts to Identify, Screen, and Track Cargo

Deploying Hardened Cargo Containers

Risk-Based Prioritization as the Basis for Transportation Security Policy

National Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108-458)

TSA Regulations to Strengthen Air Cargo and the Push for 100% Cargo Screening

Lingering Congressional Policy Concerns

Implementing Recommendations of the 9/11 Commission Act of 2007 (P.L. 110-53)

Continuing Terrorist Threat

Post-9/11 Anthrax Attacks

Attempted Shoe Bombing of American Airlines Flight 63

Al Qaeda’s Post-9/11 Ambitions

Evolving Terror Threat

The UK Airplanes Bombing Plot

Homegrown Terrorist Threats in the United States

An Asymmetric Threat Intent on Diminishing Our Resolve

Cost of Protecting Aviation

References

Chapter 4 The U.S. Strategy for Combatting Terror Threats to the Aviation Domain

Pre-9/11 Approaches to Aviation Security

Post-9/11 Actions Addressing Aviation Security Policy and Strategy

The National Aviation Security Policy

Security Threats to Aviation

Aircraft-Related Threats

Threats to Aviation Infrastructure

Threats Involving Exploitation of Air Cargo

The Risk-Based Framework

Strategic Objectives

Strategic Actions

Maximizing Domain Awareness

Deploying Layered Security

Promoting a Safe, Efficient, and Secure Aviation System

Fostering International Cooperation

Assuring Continuity of Operations

Strategic Roles and Responsibilities

Aviation Mode-Specific Plans

Aviation Transportation System Security Plan

Guiding Principles

Goals and Requirements

The Air Domain Surveillance and Intelligence Integration Plan

Guiding Principles

Considerations and Assumptions

The International Outreach and International Aviation Threat Reduction Plans

The Aviation Operational Threat Response Plan

Guiding Principles

Considerations and Assumptions

Concept of Operations

The Domestic Outreach Plan

Issues for Consideration

The Validity of Underlying Risk Assumptions

Consideration of System Sustainability

A Proactive or a Reactive Approach?

Consideration of Whether the Strategy Is Comprehensive and Robust

Alignment of Strategic Objectives with Budgetary Planning and Resource Allocation Processes

References

Chapter 5 Evaluating and Managing Security Risks

Risk Assessment Methods

Using the Risk-Based Framework to Determine a Risk Valuation and Assess Costs and Benefits

Approaches for Developing Complex Models of Risk in the Aviation Security Domain

Mitigating Aviation Security Risk

The Multilayered Approach to Aviation Security

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Mitigation Measures and Security Systems

Applying SDT to Evaluating the Performance of Aviation Security Systems

Detection Criteria and System Errors

System Sensitivity

Assessing the Impact of Security Measures on Air Transportation System Efficiency

Mitigating the Consequences of an Attack

Adaptive Systems Approaches to Aviation Security

References

Chapter 6 Exploiting Intelligence and Counterterrorism Information

An Overview of Intelligence Gathering and Analysis

Intelligence Reforms in Response to the Global Terror Threat

TSA’s Role in Transportation Security Intelligence

Tracking Terrorist Travel in the Aviation Mode

Airline Passenger Prescreening and Terrorist Watch Lists

Pre-9/11 Passenger Prescreening Initiatives

Computer-Assisted Passenger Prescreening System

“No-Fly” and “Automatic Selectee” Lists

The CAPPS II Development Effort

Secure Flight System Development

Operational Implementation of Secure Flight Terrorist Watch List Checks

Prescreening of International Passengers

Risk-Based Targeting of International Air Travelers and Shipments

Immigration Controls at International Airports of Entry

Prescreening of Aviation Workers and General Aviation Passengers

Policy Issues Related to Passenger Prescreening and Terrorist Watch List Checks

Accuracy and Reliability of Underlying Terrorist Databases

False Positive Matches and Potential Failures to Detect Terrorist Threats

Passenger Redress Procedures

Future Directions for Exploiting Intelligence Information to Strengthen Aviation Security

Using Intelligence Information to Identify Terrorist Networks

Data Fusion in the Aviation Environment

Data Logic and Current Data Fusion Practices

Parametric Data Fusion Networks

Ongoing Initiatives for Improving Data Fusion Practices

References

Chapter 7 Passenger and Baggage Screening

Policy Considerations for Aviation Security Screening

Airline Passenger Traffic Growth

Screening Efficiency and Passenger Wait Times

Space Constraints at Airports

Improving Explosives Detection at Passenger Checkpoints

In-Line EDS Integration

Strategic Planning for Addressing Technology and Human Factors Needs

Projected Costs and Funding Issues

Checkpoint Screening Human Performance

Potential Impacts of Respecting Privacy on Screening Performance

Covert Testing

Threat Image Projection

X-Ray Imagery and Carry-On Baggage Screening Performance

Passenger Checkpoint Efficiency

Passenger Wait Times

Potential Security Risks of Checkpoint Inefficiencies

Queuing Practices and Procedures

The Tailored Self-Select Screening Lane Initiative

The RT Program

Options for Further Streamlining Passenger Checkpoint Procedures

Checkpoint Procedures for Liquids

Passenger Education and Informational Materials

The Evolution of Checkpoint Design

Next Generation Checkpoint Technologies

ETD Technologies

ETD Machines

Bottle and Liquid Explosives Scanners

Walk-Through ETD Portals

WBI Technologies

X-Ray Backscatter Imaging Systems

Millimeter Wave Imaging Systems

AT X-Ray Equipment

Other Candidate Technologies and Applications for Aviation Security Screening

Screening Airport Workers

Screening and Vetting of Airline Crews

Checked Baggage Screening

Proposed Strategy for Baggage Screening Optimization

Options for Reducing Baggage

Firearms in Checked Baggage

Screener Workforce Issues

Broadening Roles for TSOs

Screener Retention

Screener Hiring Standards

TSA Staffing Needs

Salaries, Benefits, and Career Advancement Initiatives

Reducing Workplace Injuries

Whistleblower Protections

References

Chapter 8 Airline In-Flight Security Measures

Hardened Cockpit Doors

Secondary Flight Deck Barriers

Flight Deck Access Procedures

Video Surveillance of the Airliner Cabin and Improved Cabin–Cockpit Communications

Uninterruptable Aircraft Transponders

Future Systems for Aircraft Surveillance

The Federal Air Marshal Service

Post-9/11 Air Marshal Hiring and Training

Controversies Regarding Air Marshal Force Size and Flight Coverage

Air Marshal Operational and Procedural Issues

Armed Pilots and Crew Security Training

Legislative Background

FFDO Program Implementation Issues

Issues Regarding Operational Procedures for Armed Pilots

Special Considerations for FFDOs

Consideration of Less-Than-Lethal Weapons for In-Flight Security

Security Training for Airline Crews

Armed Law Enforcement on Airliners

Historical Context

Federal, State, and Local LEOs Flying Armed

Identity Verification Procedures for Armed LEOs

Handling Disruptive Passengers and Other In-Flight Security Incidents

Possible Terrorist Probing Incidents

Responding to In-Flight Security Threats

Mitigating the In-Flight Explosives Threat and Improving Aircraft Survivability

In-Flight Chemical and Biological Threats

References

Chapter 9 Commercial Airport Access Controls and Perimeter Security

Security Risk in the Airport Environment

Commercial Airport Security Program Concepts

Airport Security Technology Investment

Airport Security Programs

Airport Security Terminology

Security Designations within the Passenger Terminal

Security Identification Display Areas

Security of Designated GA Areas

Security of Military Facilities at Commercial Passenger Airports

Security of the AOA

The Airport Perimeter

Airport Contractor and Vendor Security Programs

Airport Security Risk Categories

Evaluating Airport Compliance with Security Requirements

Airport Physical Security and Security Technologies

Airport Perimeter Security and Access Control Measures

Surveillance Technologies

Infrared Sensors and Thermal Imaging Cameras

Computer Vision Technologies

Ground Surveillance Radar

Ground Vehicle Tracking

Sensor Integration

Patrolling the Airfield and the Airport Perimeter

Security Awareness Training

Law Enforcement Support

Explosives Detection Canine Teams

Law Enforcement Reimbursable Agreements

Access Control Measures

Background Check Requirements

Transportation Security Clearinghouse

Security Threat Assessments

Regulations Pertaining to Airport Badges and Identification Systems

Biometric Technologies for Credentialing and Access Controls

Planning, Design, and Construction Guidelines for Commercial Airport Security

Landside Security Considerations

Crime Prevention Strategies

Countermeasures for Chemical and Biological Threats

Detecting Radiological and Nuclear Threats in the Airport Environment

Critical Incident Management and Response

References

Chapter 10 Mitigating the Threat of Shoulder-Fired Missiles and Other Standoff Weapons

The Proliferation of Shoulder-Fired Weapons and the Terrorist Threat They Pose

IR-Guided MANPADS

CLOS MANPADS

Laser Beam Rider MANPADS

Terrorist Acquisition and Possession of MANPADS

Other Standoff Weapons

The Vulnerability of Commercial Airliners

The Vulnerability of Typical Commercial Flight Operations

The Survivability of Civilian Transport Aircraft

Civilian Aviation Encounters with Shoulder-Fired Missiles

Assessing the Potential Consequences of a Standoff Attack

U.S. Policy and Strategic Approaches

Nonproliferation and Weapons Reduction Initiatives

Counterterrorism Strategies and Tactics

Airport Security Measures

Flight Operational Procedures

Aircraft-Based Protections and Countermeasures

Homeland Security Counter-MANPADS Systems Development and Testing

Policy Considerations for Aircraft-Based Countermeasures Deployment

Unmanned Escorts Providing IR-Countermeasure Protection

Ground-Based Countermeasures

References

Chapter 11 Air Cargo Security

Security Risks Posed by Air Cargo

Explosives and Incendiary Devices

Hazardous Materials

Cargo Crime

Aircraft Hijacking and Sabotage

Airmail Consignments

Screening versus Physical Inspection of Cargo Shipments

Security in the All-Cargo Environment

Arming All-Cargo Pilots

Cargo Inspection Methods and Technologies

Known Shipper Approach

Physical Screening and Inspection

Canine Explosives Detection Teams

Cargo Screening Technology

X-Ray Screening

Explosive Detection Systems

Chemical Trace Detection Systems

Neutron Beam Technologies

Millimeter Wave Imaging Systems

Cost of Cargo Screening and Inspection

Potential Impacts on Passenger Airlines and Freight Forwarders

Potential Impacts on Manufacturers and Other Shippers

Hardened Blast-Resistant Cargo Containers

Technologies for Effectively Securing the Supply Chain

Tamper-Evident and Tamper-Resistant Seals

Access Control and Biometric Screening Technology

Physical Security of Air Cargo Facilities

Inspection and Oversight of Air Cargo Facilities

Security Training for Air Cargo Personnel

Increased Control over Access to Aircraft and Cargo Facilities

References

Chapter 12 Security for GA Operations and Airports

What Is GA?

GA Flight Operations

GA Aircraft

GA Airports

The Economic Impact of GA

The Security Challenge Posed by GA

Security Vulnerabilities

The Terrorist Threat

Potential Consequences of an Attack Using GA Aircraft

Suicide Attacks and Conventional Explosives

Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear Threats

Nuclear Power Facilities as Potential Targets

The Risk Picture for GA Aircraft

Options for Mitigating GA Security Risks

Security Risk Assessments

Surveillance and Monitoring

The Airport Watch Program

Applying Behavioral Pattern Recognition Techniques in the GA Environment

Airport Access Controls

Background Checks and Vetting

Vetting of Individuals Seeking Flight Training

Checking FAA Records on Pilots and Others against Criminal and Terrorist Databases

Background Check Requirements for Charter Operators

Vetting of Charter and Aircraft Lease Customers

Tracking Aircraft Sales

Physical Security Measures for Airports

Physical Security Measures for Aircraft

Securing Agricultural Aviation Operations

Flight School Security

Security Practices for Business and Charter Aviation

The TSA Access Certificate Program

Security Measures for Charter Operations

Security Measures for Large Private and Corporate Aircraft

Vetting and Tracking GA Flights at the U.S. Borders

Airspace Restrictions

Airspace Restrictions around Washington, DC

The Flight Restricted Zone

GA Access to DCA

The Maryland Three Airports

The Washington, DC, ADIZ

Security-Related Flight Restrictions throughout the United States

Airspace Restrictions for Presidential Visits

Policy Issues Regarding Airspace Restrictions

Effective Surveillance and Monitoring of Restricted Airspace

Curbing Airspace Violations

Airspace Protection and Homeland Defense