Qualitative Research Methods Collecting Evidence Crafting Analysis Communicating Impact 1st Edition by Sarah Tracy 140519202X 9781405192026

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ISBN 10: 140519202X

ISBN 13: 9781405192026

Author: Sarah J. Tracy

Qualitative Research Methods is a comprehensive, all-inclusive resource for the theory and practice of qualitative/ethnographic research methodology.

Qualitative Research Methods Collecting Evidence Crafting Analysis Communicating Impact 1st Table of contents:

CHAPTER 1 Developing contextual research that matters

Overview and introduction

Three core qualitative concepts: self-reflexivity, context, and thick description

Self-reflexivity

Context

Thick description

A phronetic approach: doing qualitative research that matters

Strengths of qualitative research

Foci of qualitative research

Understanding the self

Understanding relationships

Understanding groups and organizations

Understanding cultures

Understanding mediated and virtual contexts

Moving from ideas to sites, settings, and participants

Figure 1.1 An iterative approach alternates between considering existing theories and research interests on the one hand, and emergent qualitative data on the other.

EXERCISE 1.1

Table 1.1 The “field” for this brainstorm consists of all the spaces and places where employees regularly show a negative or controlling emotion toward their clients/customers as a paid part of their job, and where doing so repeatedly may challenge their emotional well-being.

Sources of research ideas

CONSIDER THIS 1.1

Compatibility, suitability, yield, and feasibility

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 1.1 Feasibility challenges with hidden populations

TIPS AND TOOLS 1.1

Moving toward a research question

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 1.2 Published examples of research questions

FOLLOWING, FORGETTING, AND IMPROVISING

In summary

EXERCISE 1.2

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 2 Entering the conversation of qualitative research

The nature of qualitative research

Inductive/emic vs. deductive/etic approaches

Action and structure

CONSIDER THIS 2.1

EXERCISE 2.1

Comparing qualitative and quantitative methods

Key characteristics of the qualitative research process

Gestalt

Figure 2.1 This image represents an example of a person’s predisposition to organize pieces of information into more than just a collection of its separate parts. Do you see two faces, a vase, or both?

Bricolage

Figure 2.2 This image from the Garbage Museum pictures the “Trashosaurus.” This piece of art is an example of bricolage in that it borrows and uses multiple items – items that have been “trash” on their own – to create a delightful and moving piece of art. Reproduced by permission of the Connecticut Resources Recovery Authority.

The funnel metaphor

Sensitizing concepts

Key definitions and territories of qualitative research

Historical matters

The early days

Ethically problematic research and the creation of the IRB

Figure 2.3 Stanford Prison Experiment. Chuck Painter/Stanford News Service.

Recent history

Current controversies

In summary

EXERCISE 2.2

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 3 Paradigmatic reflections and theoretical foundations

CONSIDER THIS 3.1

Paradigms

Positivist and post-positivist paradigm

Interpretive paradigm

EXERCISE 3.1

Critical paradigm

Postmodern/poststructuralist paradigm

CONSIDER THIS 3.2

Figure 3.1 Postmodernists view reality as rhizomatic or root-like, with meaning constantly shifting, growing, and being interdependent with other meanings. © Mike Kiev/iStockphoto.com

Paradigmatic complexities and intersections

Table 3.1 Assumptions of Four Primary Paradigmatic Approaches: (Post-)Positivist, Interpretive, Critical, Postmodern/Poststructural.

EXERCISE 3.2

Theoretical approaches that commonly use qualitative methods

Geertz’s interpretivism and thick description

Symbolic interaction

CONSIDER THIS 3.3

Ethnography of communication

Feminism

Participatory action research

Figure 3.2 Students from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro interview a farmer in a participatory action research class project. The farmer’s market is part of the Warnersville Community Food effort, which addresses food deserts and access to healthy foods in low-income communities. Pictured from left: Larry Smith, Matthew Wallace, Cynthia Cukiernik, and Kelsey Griffith. Photo taken by supervising researcher on the project, Marianne LeGreco (LeGreco, 2012).

Sensemaking

Structuration

In summary

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 4 Fieldwork and fieldplay Negotiating access and exploring the scene

A participant observation primer

Knock, knock, knocking on participants’ doors: negotiating access

Confessional tales of getting in

Riding my mentor’s coattails: Citywest 911 emergency call-takers

Becoming a full participant: Radiant Sun cruise ship

Accessing a closed organization: women’s minimum and Nouveau jail

Do some homework before approaching the scene

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 4.1: Contact information log

Please don’t reject me! Seeking research permission

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 4.2 Sample access proposal

Negotiating access to a virtual site

Abandoning the ego, engaging embodiment, embracing liminality

EXERCISE 4.1

Navigating those first few visits

Encouraging participant cooperation

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 4.3 Initial reactions speak volumes

Seeking informed consent in the scene

TIPS AND TOOLS 4.1

Exploratory methods

Briefing interviews and participant information table

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 4.4 Participant information table

Member diaries

Public documents and artifacts

Maps and narrative tours

EXERCISE 4.2

In summary

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 5 Proposal writing Explaining your research to institutional review boards, instructors, supervisory committees, and funding agencies

Getting started with institutional review

The IRB proposal: rationale, instruments, informed consent, and confidentiality

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 5.1 Participant consent letter

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 5.2 Gatekeeper permission letter

Different levels of IRB review

Exempt review

Expedited review

Full-board review

The quirks of IRB

Creating the scholarly research proposal

Title, abstract, and key words

TIPS AND TOOLS 5.1

Introduction/rationale

Purpose statement

Conceptual cocktail party

Rationale

Literature review/conceptual framework

Research questions/foci

Methods

TIPS AND TOOLS 5.2

Budget/timeline

TIPS AND TOOLS 5.3

Projected outcomes

In summary

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 6 Field roles, fieldnotes, and field focus

Field roles and standpoints of participant observation

Complete participant

Play participant

CONSIDER THIS 6.1

CONSIDER THIS 6.2

Focused participant observer

Complete observer

Writing fieldnotes

Raw records and head notes

Figure 6.1 Raw records can take a number of printed or audible forms. Here is a snapshot I took of some scratch notes I scrawled on a notepad during my cruise ship research (they were later expanded into formal, typewritten fieldnotes).

Formal fieldnotes

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 6.1 Fieldnote header

Economy versus detail

Showing (and using dialogue) versus telling

Making the familiar strange and the strange familiar

Noticing the data as evidence

CONSIDER THIS 6.3

Analytic reflections

TIPS AND TOOLS 6.1

Fieldnote wrap-up

Focusing the data and using heuristic devices

FOLLOWING, FORGETTING, AND IMPROVISING

EXERCISE 6.1

In summary

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 7 Interview planning and design Sampling, recruiting, and questioning

CONSIDER THIS 7.1

Figure 7.1 Taijitu: Depicting yin and yang. Interviews and fieldwork complement each other, interviews acting as the more obtrusive, strong, “yang”-like component, and fieldwork acting as the more submissive and free-flowing “yin.” They are not opposites, and seeds of one can be found in the other.

The value of interviews

EXERCISE 7.1

Who, what, where, how, and when: developing a sampling plan

Random samples

Convenience/opportunistic samples

TIPS AND TOOLS 7.1

Maximum variation samples

Snowball samples

Theoretical-construct samples

Typical, extreme, and critical instance samples

Determining the best sample

Interview structure, type, and stance

Structure of interviews

Interview types

Interview stances

TIPS AND TOOLS 7.2

Creating the interview guide

EXERCISE 7.2

Wording good questions

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 7.1 Research questions versus interview questions

Figure 7.2 Research questions and interview questions are not one in the same. This diagram – based upon Jennifer Scarduzio’s (2011) research – provides one example about how they may differ yet relate to one another.

TIPS AND TOOLS 7.3

Interview question types and sequencing

Opening the interview

Generative questions

Directive questions

Closing the interview

Interview question wrap-up

EXERCISE 7.3

In summary

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 8 Interview practice Embodied, mediated, and focus-group approaches

Negotiating access for interviews

Conducting face-to-face interviews

Figure 8.1 Face-to-face interviews provide the opportunity to create rapport and to collect both verbal and nonverbal data. Considering issues of access, space, privacy, and comfort can help the interview go smoothly. © Tetra Images/SuperStock.

Interview logistics

Why good interviewing is so much more than asking questions

Technologically mediated approaches to interviewing

Figure 8.2 Modern technology provides options for conducting interviews via telephone, computer, and other media venues. Plugging in this way has advantages and disadvantages by comparison with face-to-face options.

Strengths of mediated interviews

Disadvantages of mediated interviews

TIPS AND TOOLS 8.1

Strengths of mediated interviews

The focus-group interview

The value of focus groups

When to use focus groups

Planning the logistical details of focus groups

Conducting the focus group

TIPS AND TOOLS 8.2

Moderating the focus group

Overcoming common focus group and interviewing challenges

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 8.1 Remedial–pedagogical interviews

EXERCISE 8.1

Transcribing

TIPS AND TOOLS 8.3

In summary

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 9 Data analysis basics A pragmatic iterative approach

Organizing and preparing the data

Analysis logistics: colors, cutting or computers?

Manual approaches

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 9.1 Manual coding visual display

Figure 9.1 Manual coding methods can include visually linking codes, ideas, and theories. The canvas pictured here was created and photographed by Karen Stewart (2010) as she analyzed her data from The Burning Man Festival.

Computer-aided approaches with everyday software

Data immersion and primary-cycle coding

Focusing the analysis and creating a codebook

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 9.2 Codebook excerpt

CONSIDER THIS 9.1

Secondary-cycle coding: second-level analytic and axial/hierarchical coding

Synthesizing and making meaning from codes

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 9.3 Analytic memos

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 9.4 Loose analysis outline

FOLLOWING, FORGETTING, AND IMPROVISING

In summary

EXERCISE 9.1

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 10 Advanced data analysis The art and magic of interpretation

Computer-aided qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS)

Figure 10.1 A screen shot of NVivo data analysis software. NVivo is one of several popular software programs that are invaluable in helping organize, code, and query qualitative data. Reproduced by permission of QSR International.

Advanced approaches for analyzing qualitative data

Exemplars and vignettes

Developing typologies

Dramatistic strategy

Figure 10.2 Burke’s dramatistic pentad offers a powerful way of analyzing the actors, action, and scenes in the data. Courtesy of Pr. S. Wells. Reproduced from https://2009medicalrhetoric.pbworks.com/2009+Workshop+on+Medical+Rhetoric+-+Tool+for+Theoretical+and+Archival+Research+ (SW) (accessed April 2012).

Table 10.1 Burke’s dramatistic pentad offers an analysis tool for better understanding how organizations regard maternity leave.

Metaphor analysis

Visual data displays

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 10.1 Table for organizing dissertation findings

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 10.2 Matrix display

TIPS AND TOOLS 10.1

Figure 10.3 This flowchart visually depicts the analysis process described in Chapter 9.

Explanation and causality

Discourse tracing

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 10.3 Micro, meso, macro sources

FOLLOWING, THEN FORGETTING THE RULES

In summary

EXERCISE 10.1

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 11 Qualitative quality Creating a credible, ethical, significant study

The criteria controversy

TIPS AND TOOLS 11.1

Worthy topic

Rich rigor

EXERCISE 11.1

Sincerity

Self-reflexivity

Transparency

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 11.1 Sincerity word cloud

Figure 11.1 Sincerity is a key characteristic of qualitative quality; it is made up of a number of intersecting practices, as pictured in this word word cloud that I created at www.wordle.net

Credibility

Thick description

Crystallization/triangulation

TIPS AND TOOLS 11.2

Multivocality

Member reflections

Resonance

Transferability and naturalistic generalization

Aesthetic merit

Significant contribution

EXERCISE 11.2

Ethical research practice

Procedural ethics

Situational ethics

CONSIDER THIS 11.1

CONSIDER THIS 11.2

Meaningful coherence

FOLLOWING, FORGETTING, AND IMPROVISING

CONSIDER THIS 11.3

In summary

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 12 Writing Part 1 The nuts and bolts of qualitative tales

Types of tales

The realist tale

Creative, impressionist, and literary tales

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 12.1 Poetic inquiry

The confessional tale

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 12.2 Dialogue as a powerful literary tactic

The archeology of a qualitative essay

Writing the framing material: title, abstract, key words

Writing the introduction, the literature review, and the conceptual framework

Writing the research methodology and method(s)

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD 12.3 Methods data display

Writing the findings and analysis

Themes/topics

Chronology/life-story

Convergence/braided narrative

Puzzle explication strategy

Figure 12.1 One way to organize your essay is to open it with a paradox, enigma, puzzle, or absurdity, and then to “solve” the puzzle through the paper’s analysis. WoodyStock/Alamy.

Separated text

Layered/messy texts

EXERCISE 12.1

Writing the conclusions and implications

FOLLOWING, FORGETTING, AND IMPROVISING

In summary

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 13 Writing Part 2 Drafting, polishing, and publishing

Figure 13.1 Even the most accomplished writers deal with writing block and “shitty first drafts.” Having a sense of humor about it is a good first step at getting better. Cartoon from Savage Chickens (www.savagechickens.com) by Doug Savage.

Writing to inquire

How to write qualitative evidence

Choosing the evidence

Rich, luminous, and thick evidence

Structuring the data in sections, paragraphs, and sentences

Formatting qualitative work

Visual representations

RESEARCHER’s NOTEPAD 13.1 Visual representation

Figure 13.2 A model of volunteer motivation, designed by Timothy Huffman.

Setting yourself up for success by considering the audience first

EXERCISE 13.1

TIPS AND TOOLS 13.1

Journals that have published qualitative communication research

Submitting, revising, and resubmitting for journal publication

Table 13.1 A revise and resubmit trajectory of pain, resilience, and eventual triumph.

Git R done: overcoming common writing and submission challenges

How to write a lot

TIPS AND TOOLS 13.2

Addressing common challenges in qualitative writing

FOLLOWING, FORGETTING, AND IMPROVISING

In summary

KEY TERMS

CHAPTER 14 Qualitative methodology matters Exiting and communicating impact

Navigating exit from the scene

Give notice and say goodbye

Exits can be emotional

Don’t spoil the scene

Give back

RESEARCHER’s NOTEPAD 14.1 Thank you note

Ethically delivering the findings

FOLLOWING, FORGETTING, AND IMPROVISING

Moving toward research representations with public impact

Public scholarship

Staged performances

RESEARCHER’s NOTEPAD 14.2 Staged performance with impact

White papers

Grant applications and reports

TIPS AND TOOLS 14.1

Consulting

Media relations

Websites and web relations

Figure 14.1 Bud Goodall’s website offers an attractive template and a range of resources, including a blog, book reviews, press reports, and summaries of his research. Screen shot from https://www.hlgoodall.com/ (March, 2012).

Warning: doing research that matters can be terrifying

Overcoming lingering obstacles to public scholarship

EXERCISE 14.1

FOLLOWING, FORGETTING, AND IMPROVISING

In summary

KEY TERMS

Back Matter

Appendix A

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD Fieldnote

Appendix B

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD Focus group guide

Appendix C

RESEARCHER’S NOTEPAD Interview/focus group excerpts with different levels of transcription detail

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