Electrical Power Equipment Maintenance and Testing 2nd Edition by Paul Gill 1574446568 9781574446562

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ISBN 10: 1574446568

ISBN 13: 9781574446562

Author: Paul Gill

The second edition of a bestseller, this definitive text covers all aspects of testing and maintenance of the equipment found in electrical power systems serving industrial, commercial, utility substations, and generating plants. It addresses practical aspects of routing testing and maintenance and presents both the methodologies and engineering basics needed to carry out these tasks. It is an essential reference for engineers and technicians responsible for the operation, maintenance, and testing of power system equipment. Comprehensive coverage includes dielectric theory, dissolved gas analysis, cable fault locating, ground resistance measurements, and power factor, dissipation factor, DC, breaker, and relay testing methods.

Electrical Power Equipment Maintenance and Testing 2nd Table of contents:

Chapter 1 Maintenance Strategies, Dielectric Theory, Insulating Materials, Failure Modes, and Maintenance Impact on Arc-Flash Hazards

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Why Maintain and Test

1.3 Overview of Electrical Maintenance and Testing Strategies

1.3.1 Key Factors in EPM Optimization Decisions

1.3.2 General Criteria for an Effective EPM and Testing Program

1.3.3 Qualifications of EPM Personnel

1.3.4 Optimization of PM Intervals

1.3.5 Trending of Test Results

1.3.6 Systematic Failure Analysis Approach

1.3.6.1 Postmaintenance Testing

1.3.6.2 Engineering Support

1.3.6.3 Summary

1.4 Planning an EPM Program

1.4.1 Maintenance Management Considerations

1.4.1.1 Responsibilities

1.4.1.2 Inspection

1.4.1.3 Scheduling

1.4.1.4 Work Orders

1.4.1.5 Record Keeping

1.4.2 Technical Requirements

1.4.2.1 Survey of Plant Equipment

1.4.2.2 Listing of Plant Equipment in the Order of Critical Importance

1.4.2.3 Plan to Perform EPM on Regular Frequency

1.4.2.4 Development of Instruction and Procedures for the EPM Program

1.4.3 What Should Be Included in the EPM Program

1.4.3.1 EPM and Testing

1.4.3.2 Electrical Repairs

1.4.3.3 Analysis of Failures

1.4.3.4 Trending of Maintenance and Testing Data

1.4.3.5 Computerized Maintenance Management System

1.5 Overview of Testing and Test Methods

1.5.1 Types of Tests

1.5.1.1 Acceptance Tests

1.5.1.2 Routine Maintenance Tests

1.5.1.3 Special Maintenance Tests

1.5.2 Types of Testing Methods

1.5.2.1 Solid Insulation Testing

1.5.2.2 Insulating Liquid Testing

1.5.2.3 Protective Device Testing

1.5.2.4 Circuit Breaker Time–Travel Analysis

1.5.2.5 Grounding Electrode Resistance Testing

1.5.2.6 Fault Gas Analysis Testing

1.5.2.7 Infrared Inspection Testing

1.6 Review of Dielectric Theory and Practice

1.6.1 Characteristics of Dielectrics (Insulation)

1.6.1.1 Dielectric Loss

1.6.1.2 PF and DF

1.6.1.3 Capacitance

1.6.2 Insulation as a Capacitor

1.6.3 DC Voltage versus AC Voltage Tests

1.6.3.1 DC Voltage Tests

1.6.3.2 AC Voltage Tests

1.6.4 Insulation Breakdown Modes

1.7 Insulating Materials for Electrical Power Equipment

1.7.1 Rigid Laminates Sheet, Rod, and Tube

1.7.2 Glass Polyester Products

1.7.3 Flexible Laminates and Films

1.7.4 Insulation Temperature Ratings

1.8 Causes of Insulation Degradation and Failure Modes of Electrical Equipment

1.8.1 Failure Modes—Electrical Power Equipment

1.8.1.1 Transformers

1.8.1.2 Switchgear and Circuit Breakers

1.8.1.3 Relays

1.8.1.4 Switchgear Buses

1.8.1.5 Cables and Connectors

1.8.1.6 Rotating Machines

1.9 Maintenance of Protective Devices and their Impact on Arc-Flash Hazard Analysis

1.9.1 Bases of Maintenance and Testing of Protective Devices

1.9.2 Failure Statistics

1.9.3 Flash Hazard Analysis

Chapter 2 Direct-Current Voltage Testing of Electrical Equipment

2.1 Introduction

2.2 DC Voltage Testing of Insulation

2.2.1 Dielectric Phenomena and Polarization

2.2.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of DC Voltage Testing

2.2.2.1 Advantages

2.2.2.2 Disadvantages

2.3 DC Testing Methods

2.3.1 Insulation Resistance Testing

2.3.1.1 Short-Time Readings

2.3.1.2 Time–Resistance Readings

2.3.1.3 PI Test

2.3.1.4 Step-Voltage Readings (DC Voltage Tip-Up Test)

2.3.2 High-Potential Voltage Test

2.4 Transformers

2.4.1 Insulation Resistance Measurement

2.4.2 Dielectric Absorption Test

2.4.3 DC High-Potential Test

2.5 Cables and Accessories

2.5.1 Insulation Resistance Measurement Test

2.5.2 DC Overpotential Testing

2.5.3 Voltage versus Leakage Current Test (Step-Voltage Test)

2.5.4 Leakage Current versus Time Test

2.5.5 Go, No-Go Overpotential Test

2.5.6 DC Overpotential Test Connections and Procedures

2.6 Electrical Switchgear and Circuit Breakers

2.6.1 Insulation Resistance Measurement Test

2.6.2 DC High-Potential Test

2.6.3 Circuit Breaker Contact Resistance Measurement Test

2.7 Motors and Generators

2.7.1 Insulation Resistance Test

2.7.1.1 Field-Winding Test Procedures

2.7.1.2 Overall Stator (Armature Windings) Test

2.7.1.3 Overall System Test for the Motor or Generator

2.7.1.4 Individual Stator Winding Test

2.7.2 DC Overpotential Test

2.7.3 Voltage versus Leakage Current Test (Step-Voltage Test)

2.7.4 Leakage Current versus Time Test

2.8 Lightning Arresters

2.9 Capacitors

2.9.1 Tests to Check the Condition of New Capacitor Units before Placing in Service

2.9.2 Tests to Check the Condition of a Capacitor Unit after It Has Been in Service

2.10 Evaluation of Test Data Readings

2.10.1 Acceptance Criteria for Rating Insulation

2.11 Precautions When Making DC Tests

Chapter 3 Power Factor and Dissipation Factor Testing Methods

3.1 Introduction

3.2 PF and DF Test Methods

3.2.1 General

3.2.2 Principles of PF/DF Testing

3.2.3 Factors That Influence PF Measurements

3.3 Description of the PF Test Equipment

3.3.1 PF and DF Test Set

3.3.2 General Instructions for the Operation of the Megger Test Set

3.3.3 Doble PF Test Set

3.3.4 Operation of Doble PF Test Set

3.4 Basic Test Connections (Test Modes) for PF Testing

3.4.1 Grounded-Specimen Test Mode

3.4.2 GST Mode with Guard (GST-G)

3.4.3 Ungrounded-Specimen Test Mode

3.5 Safety Cautions with PF Testing

3.6 PF Testing of Electrical Apparatus Insulation

3.6.1 Transformers

3.6.1.1 Two-Winding Transformers

3.6.1.2 Three-Winding Transformers

3.6.1.3 Autotransformers

3.6.1.4 PTs

3.6.2 Transformer Bushing

3.6.2.1 Hot-Collar Tests of Noncondenser-Type Bushings

3.6.3 Transformer Excitation Current Test

3.6.4 Transformer Insulating Oils and Fluids

3.6.5 Lightning Arrestors

3.6.6 Circuit Breakers

3.6.6.1 Medium-Voltage Circuit Breakers

3.6.6.2 Oil Circuit Breakers (OCBs)

3.6.7 SF6 Breaker

3.6.8 Rotating Machinery

3.6.8.1 PF Tip-Up Test

3.6.9 Cables and Accessories

3.6.9.1 Shielded or Sheathed Cable

3.6.9.2 Unshielded and Unsheathed Cables

3.6.10 PF Correction Capacitors and Surge Capacitors

3.6.10.1 Bus Insulators

3.6.10.2 Miscellaneous Equipment

3.7 Evaluation and Grading of PF and DF Test Results

3.7.1 General

3.7.2 Analysis of the Results

3.7.2.1 Transformers

3.7.2.2 Bushings

3.7.2.3 Lightning and Surge Arrestors

3.7.2.4 Medium-Voltage Circuit Breakers

3.7.2.5 OCB

3.7.2.6 SF6 Breakers

3.7.2.7 Rotating Machines

3.7.2.8 Cables and Accessories

3.7.2.9 Capacitors

Chapter 4 Insulating Oils, Fluids, and Gases

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Insulating Oil

4.2.1 Deterioration of Insulating Oil

4.2.1.1 Effect of Oxygen on Oil

4.2.1.2 Moisture in Oil

4.2.1.3 Oil Deterioration in Transformers

4.2.1.4 Absorption of Moisture by Insulating Materials

4.2.1.5 Absorption of Nitrogen by Oil

4.2.2 Insulating Oil Testing

4.2.2.1 Dielectric Breakdown Voltage Test (Cup Tests)

4.2.2.2 Acidity Test

4.2.2.3 Interfacial Tension (IFT)

4.2.2.4 Color Test

4.2.2.5 Power Factor Test

4.2.2.6 Specific Gravity

4.2.2.7 Water Content Test (Karl Fisher Method)

4.2.3 Combustible Gas Analysis of Insulating Oil

4.2.3.1 Introduction

4.2.3.2 TCG

4.2.3.3 DGA

4.2.3.4 Comparing the Two Methods

4.2.3.5 Interpretation of Gas Analysis

4.2.3.6 Assessing the Transformer Condition Using the TCGA in the Gas Space

4.2.3.7 Assessing the Transformer Condition Using the DGA Method

4.2.3.8 Fault Types and Associated Key Gases

4.3 Less Flammable Insulating Fluids

4.4 Insulating Liquid Sampling Procedures

4.4.1 Sampling Oil from Transformers

4.4.2 Sampling Oil from Drums or Shipping Containers

4.4.3 Taking Oil Samples for Gas-in-Oil Analysis

4.5 Maintenance and Reconditioning of Insulating Oil and Fluids

4.5.1 Reconditioning Used Insulating Oils

4.5.1.1 Natural Precipitation

4.5.1.2 Filter Presses

4.5.1.3 Filter Press Operation

4.5.1.4 Cartridge Filters

4.5.1.5 Centrifuges

4.5.1.6 Coalescers

4.5.1.7 Vacuum Dehydrators

4.5.2 Maintenance of Less Flammable Fluids

4.5.2.1 Maintenance of RTemp

4.5.2.2 Maintenance of Silicone

4.5.2.3 Maintenance of Wecosol

4.5.2.4 Maintenance of Environtemp (FR3)

4.5.2.5 Maintenance of Askarels

4.6 Insulating Gases

4.6.1 Maintenance of SF6

4.6.1.1 Conducting Particles

4.6.1.2 Moisture

4.6.1.3 Oil Contamination

4.6.1.4 Gaseous Contamination

4.6.1.5 Arc Products

Chapter 5 Transformers

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Transformer Categories and Type

5.2.1 Insulating Medium

5.2.1.1 Dry Type

5.2.1.2 Liquid-Filled Transformer

5.2.2 Construction

5.2.2.1 Tank Construction

5.2.2.2 Core Construction

5.3 Application and Use

5.3.1 Distribution Transformers

5.3.2 Network Transformer

5.3.3 Arc-Furnace Transformer

5.3.4 Rectifier Transformer

5.3.5 Power Transformer

5.4 Transformer Fundamentals

5.4.1 Voltage Relationship

5.4.2 Current Relationship

5.4.3 Impedance Relationship

5.4.4 Summary

5.5 Transformer Polarity, Terminal Markings, and Connections

5.5.1 Single-Phase Transformers

5.5.1.1 Subtractive Polarity

5.5.1.2 Additive Polarity

5.5.2 Three-Phase Transformers

5.6 Transformer Characteristics

5.7 Preventive Maintenance of Transformers

5.7.1 Transformer Installation, Acceptance, and Maintenance

5.7.1.1 Unscheduled Maintenance

5.7.1.2 Ordinary Maintenance

5.7.1.3 Protective Maintenance

5.7.2 Dry-Type Transformers

5.7.2.1 Installation

5.7.2.2 Inspection

5.7.2.3 Acceptance Tests

5.7.2.4 Maintenance

5.7.2.5 Drying-Out Methods

5.7.2.6 Storage

5.7.3 Liquid-Type Transformer

5.7.3.1 Installation

5.7.3.2 Inspection

5.7.3.3 Acceptance Tests

5.7.3.4 Maintenance

5.7.3.5 Drying-Out Methods

5.7.3.6 Storage

5.7.3.7 Transformer Diagnostic Guide

5.8 Transformer Testing

5.8.1 AC Hi-Pot Test

5.8.2 TTR Test

5.8.2.1 Alternative Test for TTR

5.8.2.2 TTR Capacitor

5.8.3 Polarity Test

5.8.4 Induced Potential Test

5.8.5 FRA

5.8.6 DC Winding Resistance

5.8.7 Transformer Core Ground Test

5.8.8 Polarization Recovery Voltage Test

5.8.8.1 The Measuring Instrument

5.8.8.2 Test Setup for Recovery Voltage Measurement on Power Transformers

5.8.8.3 Evaluation of Measured Polarization Spectra

5.9 Online Condition Monitoring of Transformers

5.9.1 Online Monitoring of Transformers

5.10 Online Monitoring of Bushings and Lightning Arrestors

Chapter 6 Cables and Accessories

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Cable Construction and Classification

6.2.1 Types of Conductors

6.2.2 Conductor Arrangement

6.2.3 Cable Types

6.2.4 Insulations

6.2.5 Shielding and Semiconducting Tape

6.2.6 Finishes and Jackets

6.2.7 Cable Construction

6.3 Cable Characteristics

6.4 Electrical Constants

6.5 Cable Ratings

6.6 Cable Selection and Application

6.7 Installation of Cables

6.7.1 Outdoor Installations

6.7.2 Indoor Installations

6.7.3 Bending Data

6.7.4 Pulling Tensions

6.8 Maintenance of Cables

6.9 Cable Failures and Their Analysis

6.10 Field Testing of Medium-Voltage Cables

6.10.1 Cable Degradation and Diagnostic Tests

6.10.2 Safety Practices and Grounding

6.10.3 Cable Testing Methods

6.10.3.1 Insulation Resistance and DC Hi-Pot Testing

6.10.3.2 AC Hi-Pot Testing

6.10.3.3 PF and DF Testing

6.10.3.4 VLF Tests

6.10.3.5 PD Test

6.10.3.6 AC Resonance Test

6.10.3.7 Summary of Testing Methods

6.11 Latest Trends in Cable Condition Monitoring and Aging Assessment

6.11.1 Electronic Characterization and Diagnostic (ECAD®) System

6.11.2 Cable Indentor

6.11.3 Oscillating Wave (OSW) Testing

6.11.4 Broadband Impedance Spectroscopy Prognostic/Diagnostic Technique

6.12 Cable Fault Locating Methods

6.12.1 Terminal Techniques

6.12.2 Tracer Techniques

6.12.3 Application Guide for Cable Fault Locating

Chapter 7 Medium-Voltage Switchgear and Circuit Breakers

7.1 General

7.2 Medium-Voltage Switchgear

7.2.1 Construction Features

7.2.1.1 Metal-Clad Switchgear

7.2.1.2 Metal-Enclosed Interrupter Switchgear

7.2.1.3 Station-Type Cubicle

7.2.2 Short-Circuit Considerations and Power Circuit Breaker Ratings

7.2.3 Selection and Application of Power Circuit Breakers

7.3 Electrical Switchgear Maintenance and Care

7.3.1 MV Switchgear

7.3.1.1 Power Circuit Breakers

7.3.1.2 Maintenance

7.3.2 Air-Magnetic Circuit Breakers

7.3.3 Oil Circuit Breaker

7.3.4 Vacuum Circuit Breaker

7.3.5 Switchgear Enclosure and Bus

7.4 Electrical Switchgear Testing

7.4.1 Insulation Resistance Measurement Test

7.4.2 DC Hi-Pot Test

7.4.3 AC Hi-Pot Test

7.4.4 Power Factor Testing

7.4.5 Circuit Breaker Contact Resistance Measurement Test

7.4.6 Circuit Breaker Time–Travel Analysis

7.4.7 Dynamic Capacitance Measurement of HV Breaker

7.5 Control Power for Switchgear

7.5.1 Control Power Requirements

7.5.1.1 Circuit Breaker Tripping

7.5.1.2 DC Battery Trip

7.5.1.3 Capacitor Trip

7.5.1.4 AC Methods of Tripping

7.5.1.5 Circuit Breaker Closing

7.6 DC (Battery) Control Power Equipment

7.6.1 Sizing

7.6.2 Types of Batteries

7.6.3 Battery Chargers

7.7 AC Control Power Equipment

7.7.1 Sizing

7.7.2 Application

7.8 Maintenance and Care of Batteries for Switchgear Applications

7.8.1 Inspections

7.8.2 Equalizing Charge

7.8.3 Battery Tests

7.8.3.1 Acceptance Test

7.8.3.2 Performance Test

7.8.3.3 Battery Service Test (Load Test)

7.8.3.4 Connection Resistance Test

7.8.3.5 Battery Impedance Test

7.8.4 Addition of Water

7.8.5 Acid Spillage

7.8.6 Loose Connections

7.8.7 Corrosion

7.8.9 Other Maintenance Hints

Chapter 8 Low-Voltage Switchgear and Circuit Breakers

8.1 Low-Voltage Switchgear

8.2 Low-Voltage Circuit Breakers

8.2.1 MCCBs

8.2.2 Insulated-Case Circuit Breakers

8.2.3 Power Circuit Breakers

8.2.4 Fused Power Circuit Breakers

8.3 Overcurrent Protective Devices

8.3.1 Direct-Acting Trip

8.3.2 Static- and Electronic-Trip Units

8.3.3 Monitoring and Protection Packages

8.4 Fuses

8.4.1 Low-Voltage Fuses

8.5 Disconnect Switches

8.5.1 Low-Voltage Switches

8.6 Selection and Application of Low-Voltage Equipment

8.6.1 Assessing Service Life of Low-Voltage Breakers

8.6.1.1 Maximum Voltage Rating or Nominal Voltage Class

8.6.1.2 Continuous Current Rating

8.6.1.3 Rated Short-Circuit Current (Circuit Breakers)

8.6.1.4 Short-Circuit Current Ratings—Panelboards, MCCs, and Switchgear Assemblies

8.6.1.5 Endurance Requirements for Low-Voltage Breakers

8.7 Low-Voltage Switchgear Maintenance and Care

8.7.1 General Guidelines for Inspection and Maintenance of Switchgear

8.7.2 Maintenance of Power Circuit Breakers

8.7.2.1 Mechanical Maintenance Factors

8.7.2.2 Electrical Maintenance Factors

8.7.2.3 Inspections Procedure

8.7.3 MCCBs

8.7.3.1 Mechanical Factors

8.7.3.2 Electrical Factors

8.7.3.3 Inspections Procedure

8.7.4 Switchgear Enclosure

8.7.5 Air Disconnect Switches, Fuses, and Insulators

8.7.5.1 Air Disconnect Switches

8.7.5.2 Power Fuses

8.7.5.3 Insulators

8.8 Maintenance and Testing of Low-Voltage Protective Devices

8.8.1 Power Circuit Breaker Overcurrent Trip Devices

8.8.1.1 Overcurrent Trip Units

8.8.2 Molded-Case Breaker Trips

8.8.2.1 Protective Trip Testing

8.8.2.2 Verification Testing

8.8.3 Overload Relays

8.8.4 Testing of Ground Fault Sensing and Relaying Equipment

8.8.4.1 Preparation for Fielding Training

8.8.4.2 Field Testing

8.9 Uninterruptible Power Supply Commissioning and Testing

8.9.1 Background

8.9.2 Preinstallation Checks and Tests

8.9.3 Combined Test (UPS with the Generator)

8.9.4 Maintenance Test

8.9.4.1 UPS Battery System

8.9.5 Maintenance and Testing

8.9.6 Summary

8.10 Infrared Inspection of Electrical Equipment

8.10.1 Types of Thermographic Scanners

8.10.2 Conducting an IR Thermographic Inspection

8.10.2.1 Delta-T Temperature Rating Systems

8.10.2.2 Standards-Based Temperature Rating System

8.10.3 Conducting a Thermographic Survey

8.10.4 Examples of Thermographic Findings

Chapter 9 Testing and Commissioning of Protective Relays and Instrument Transformers

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Instrument Transformers

9.2.1 Current Transformers

9.2.1.1 CT Accuracy Standards

9.2.1.2 Accuracy Classes for Metering

9.2.1.3 Accuracy Classes for Relaying

9.2.2 Voltage (Potential) Transformers

9.2.3 Polarity of Instrument Transformers

9.2.3.1 Testing for Polarity of Instrument Transformers

9.2.4 Testing for Ratio of Instrument Transformers

9.2.5 Winding and Lead Resistance Measurements

9.2.6 Burden Measurements

9.2.7 CT Remanence

9.2.8 Grounding of CT

9.2.9 Maintenance and Testing of Instrument Transformers

9.3 Protective Relays

9.3.1 Classification of Relays

9.3.2 Overview of Protective Relays—Construction and Types

9.3.2.1 Electromechanical and Induction Relays (First-Generation Relays)

9.3.2.2 Static Relays (Second-Generation Relays)

9.3.2.3 Solid-Sate Relays (Third-Generation Relays)

9.3.2.4 Microprocessor Relays (Fourth-Generation Relays)

9.4 Relay Application and Principles

9.5 Types of Relay Tests

9.6 Testing and Maintenance of Electromechanical Protective Relays

9.6.1 Relay Inspection and Tests

9.6.2 Protective Relay Test Procedures and Circuits

9.6.3 Relay Test Points and Test Circuits

9.6.4 Instrument Transformers Calibration

9.7 Testing and Commissioning of Static and Digital Relays

9.7.1 Test Methods

9.7.2 Commissioning Methods

9.7.3 Commissioning Examples

9.8 Event Reporting

Chapter 10 Motors and Generators

10.1 General

10.2 NEMA Classification of Motors and Generators

10.2.1 According to Size

10.2.2 According to Application

10.2.3 According to Electrical Type

10.2.3.1 AC Motors

10.2.3.2 Polyphase Motor

10.2.3.3 Single-Phase Motor

10.2.3.4 Universal Motor

10.2.3.5 DC Motors

10.2.3.6 DC Generators

10.2.4 According to Physical Protection (Enclosure) and Methods of Cooling

10.2.5 According to Variability of Speed

10.2.6 Terminal Marking of Machines

10.2.6.1 Single-Voltage Motors

10.2.6.2 Dual-Voltage Motors

10.2.6.3 Polyphase Motors

10.3 Applications of Motors and Generators

10.3.1 Electrical Integrity

10.3.1.1 Dielectric Rating

10.3.1.2 Load–Time Rating

10.3.2 Mechanical Integrity

10.4 AC Motors

10.4.1 Environmental Conditions

10.4.2 Direction of Rotation

10.4.3 Operation at Altitudes above 3300 ft

10.4.4 Voltage and Frequency

10.4.5 Horsepower, Torque, and Speed Considerations

10.4.6 Power Factor

10.4.7 Motor Selection

10.5 AC Generators

10.5.1 Service Conditions

10.5.2 Ratings

10.5.3 Temperature Rise

10.5.4 Variation in Voltage

10.5.5 Regulation

10.6 DC Motors

10.6.1 Service Conditions

10.6.2 Operation of DC Motor on Rectified AC

10.6.3 Operation of the DC Motor below Base Speed

10.6.4 Operation of the DC Motor above Base Speed

10.6.5 Overload Capability

10.7 DC Generators

10.7.1 Service Conditions

10.7.2 Ratings

10.7.3 Temperature Rise

10.7.4 Overload Capability

10.7.5 Voltage Excitation

10.7.6 Overspeed

10.8 Motor and Generator Insulation Systems

10.8.1 Machine Insulation System

10.9 Motor and Generator Maintenance

10.9.1 Failure Mechanisms

10.9.1.1 Stator-Winding Insulation

10.9.1.2 Rotor-Winding Insulation

10.9.1.3 Exciter Insulation

10.9.2 General Inspection

10.9.2.1 Visual Inspection

10.9.3 DC Motors and Generators and Repulsion-Induction Motors

10.9.3.1 Cleanliness

10.9.3.2 Armature

10.9.3.4 Field Windings

10.9.4 Induction Motor

10.9.4.1 Stator Windings

10.9.4.2 Air Gap

10.9.4.3 Wound-Rotor Windings

10.9.4.4 Brushes and Rings

10.9.4.5 Centrifugal Switches

10.9.4.6 Squirrel-Cage Rotors

10.9.5 Synchronous Motors and Generators

10.9.6 Cleaning and Varnishing of Machine Windings

10.9.6.1 Cleaning

10.9.6.2 Drying

10.9.6.3 Varnish

10.9.7 Lubrication, Bearings, and Oil Seals

10.9.7.1 Lubrication

10.9.7.2 Sleeve Bearings

10.9.7.3 Antifriction Bearings

10.9.7.4 Installation of Oil Seals

10.9.8 Brushes

10.9.8.1 Brush Adjustment

10.9.9 Balancing

10.9.9.1 Need for Balancing

10.9.9.2 Imbalance Measurement

10.9.10 Belts, Gears, and Pinions

10.9.10.1 Belts

10.9.10.2 Gears and Pinions

10.10 Predictive Maintenance Guide on Motors and Variable Frequency Drives

10.10.1 Power Quality

10.10.2 Power Circuit

10.10.3 Insulation Condition

10.10.4 Stator Condition

10.10.5 Rotor Condition

10.10.6 Air Gap

10.11 Testing of Motors and Generators

10.11.1 Insulation Resistance and Dielectric Absorption Tests

10.11.2 High-Potential Test

10.11.3 PF Test

10.11.4 Dissipation Factor Tan δ Test

10.11.5 Partial Discharge Test

10.11.6 Slot Discharge Test

10.11.7 Conductor Insulation Tests

10.11.8 Motor and Generator Component Tests

10.11.9 Voltage Surge Comparison Test

10.12 Other Insulation Test Methods

10.12.1 Very Low Frequency Testing

10.12.2 Series Resonant Testing

10.13 Vibration Analysis

Chapter 11 Electrical Power System Grounding and Ground Resistance Measurements

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Selection of Grounding Method

11.2.1 Ungrounded Systems

11.2.2 Solidly Grounded Systems

11.2.3 Reactance and Resistance Grounded Systems

11.2.4 Resonant Grounding

11.2.5 Grounding Ungrounded Systems

11.3 Selection of Grounding System

11.3.1 Solidly Grounded System

11.3.2 Low-Resistance Grounding

11.3.3 High-Resistance Grounding

11.3.4 Reactance Grounding

11.3.5 Ground-Fault Neutralizers (Resonant Grounded)

11.4 Understanding Ground Resistance

11.4.1 Grounding Electrode Resistance

11.4.2 Effect of Ground Electrode Size and Depth on Resistance

11.4.3 Effect of Soil Resistivity on Ground Electrode Resistance

11.4.4 Factors Affecting Soil Resistivity

11.4.5 Effect of Ground Electrode Depth on Resistance

11.5 Ground Resistance Values

11.6 Ground Resistance Measurements

11.6.1 Two-Point Method

11.6.2 Three-Point Method

11.6.3 Fall-of-Potential Method

11.6.3.1 Position of the Auxiliary Electrodes on Measurements

11.6.3.2 Measuring Resistance of Ground Electrodes (62% Method)

11.6.3.3 Auxiliary Electrode Spacing

11.6.3.4 Multiple Electrode System

11.6.4 Ratio Method

11.6.5 Soil Resistivity Measurements (Four-Point Measurement)

11.6.6 Touch Potential Measurements

11.6.7 Clamp-On Ground Resistance Measurement

11.6.7.1 Principle of Operation

11.6.7.2 In-Field Measurement

11.6.7.3 Transmission Towers

11.6.7.4 Central Office Locations

11.7 Ground Grid Integrity Measurements

Chapter 12 Power Quality, Harmonics, and Predictive Maintenance

12.1 Background

12.2 PQ Concept and Fundamentals

12.2.1 Types and Consequences of Electrical Disturbances

12.3 Origins of PQ Problems and Harmonics

12.4 Characteristics of Typical Linear and Nonlinear Loads

12.4.1 Voltage and Current Characteristics of Nonlinear Loads

12.4.1.1 HD Terminology

12.4.1.2 Types of Nonlinear Loads

12.4.1.3 PF Characteristics of Loads

12.4.1.4 Phase Sequence of Harmonics

12.4.1.5 Harmonic Generating Characteristics

12.4.1.6 Sensitivity to Harmonics

12.4.1.7 Sensitivity to Voltage Variation

12.4.1.8 Sensitivity to Voltage Flicker

12.4.1.9 Sensitivity to Noise

12.5 Effects of Harmonic on Power System Equipment and Loads

12.5.1 Basic Concepts on Effects of Harmonics

12.5.1.1 Thermal Stress

12.5.1.2 Insulation Stress

12.5.1.3 Load Disruption

12.5.2 Harmonic Effects on Power System Equipment

12.5.2.1 Transformers

12.5.2.2 Rotating Machines

12.5.2.3 Capacitor Banks

12.5.2.4 Switchgear

12.5.2.5 Protective Relays

12.5.2.6 Metering Devices

12.5.2.7 Electronic Equipment

12.5.2.8 Lighting Devices

12.6 Predictive Maintenance and PQ Measurements

12.6.1 Introduction

12.6.2 Safety Standards for Test Instruments

12.6.2.1 Test Instrument Standards

12.6.2.2 Instruments for PQ Measurements

12.6.3 PQ Measurement Guidelines

12.6.3.1 Preparation for Conducting Measurements

12.6.3.2 Basic Power Measurements

12.6.3.3 Measurements at the Receptacle of a Branch Circuit

12.6.3.4 Measurement at the Service Panel

12.6.3.5 Measurements at the Transformer

12.6.3.6 Electrical Noise

12.6.3.7 Transients

12.6.3.8 Lightning

12.6.3.9 Polyphase Induction Motors

12.6.3.10 PQ Measurements of VFDs

12.6.3.11 Power System Resonance

12.6.3.12 Commercial Lighting Load

12.6.3.13 Summary of PQ Problems

12.7 PQ Solution and Power Treatment Devices

12.7.1 Voltage Disturbances and Noise

12.7.1.1 Noise Filters (Electronic Filters)

12.7.1.2 TVSS

12.7.1.3 Voltage Regulators

12.7.1.4 Isolation Transformers

12.7.1.5 Power Conditioners

12.7.1.6 UPS

12.7.2 HDs

12.7.2.1 Industry Standards on Limits of Harmonics

12.7.2.2 Evaluating System Harmonics

12.7.2.3 Harmonic Solutions—Mitigation Devices and Methods

12.7.3 Wiring and Grounding Problems

Chapter 13 Electrical Safety, Arc-Flash Hazard, Switching Practices, and Precautions

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Industry Standards and Regulatory Requirements for Safety

13.2.1 ANSI C2: The National Electrical Safety Code-2007

13.2.2 ANSI/National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 70, National Electrical Code (NEC)-2008

13.2.3 ANSI/NFPA 70B, Standard for Electrical Equipment Maintenance-2006

13.2.4 ANSI/NFPA 70E, Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace-2004

13.2.5 Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Standards

13.3 Arc-Flash Hazard and Regulatory Requirements

13.3.1 Summary of NFPA 70, 70E, and OSHA Requirements

13.3.2 Overview of Arc-Flash Hazard

13.3.3 Arc-Flash Analysis

13.4 Electrical Safety Practices and Precautions

13.4.1 Electrical Safety

13.4.2 “On-Site” Electrical Safety

13.4.3 “On-Site” Safety Kit

13.4.4 Work Area Control

13.4.5 Lock-Out and/or Tagging

13.4.6 Protective Apparel-Operating Electrical Equipment

13.4.7 Testing of Electrical Circuits and/or Equipment

13.4.8 Rubber Gloves for Electrical Work-Use and Care

13.4.9 Low-Voltage Tester

13.4.10 Medium- and HV-Detectors

13.4.11 Grounds-Personnel Protection

13.5 Electrical Switching Practices and Precautions

13.5.1 On-Site Circuit Breaker Maintenance Safety Checklists

13.5.2 Confined Spaces—Procedure for Entering

13.5.3 Electrical Precautions

13.5.3.1 General Precautions

13.5.3.2 Loads and Currents

13.5.3.3 Switch Sticks

13.5.3.4 Opening Disconnects by Using the “Inching” Method

13.5.3.5 Selector Disconnects

13.5.3.6 Circuit Breaker Disconnects

13.5.3.7 Interrupter Switches

13.5.3.8 Closing Disconnects under Load Conditions

13.5.3.9 Air Break Switches

13.5.3.10 Protection against Air Break Flashover

13.5.3.11 Motor-Controlled Disconnects and Air Breaks

13.6 Electrical Fire Emergencies

13.6.1 Never Make Direct Contact with Any Energized Object

13.6.2 Stay Clear of Vicinity of Any Faulty Energized Object

13.6.3 Be Alert in Vicinity of Any Energized Object

13.6.3.1 Beware of Covered Wires

13.6.3.2 Beware of Telephone Cables

13.6.4 Assume Every Fallen Wire Is Energized and Dangerous

13.6.4.1 Wire on Ground

13.6.4.2 Wire on Object

13.6.4.3 Wire on Vehicle

13.6.5 Never Cut Wires Except to Protect Life

13.6.5.1 Take Care after Cutting

13.6.5.2 Cutting Service Wires

13.6.6 Use Approved Procedures and Equipment If You Must Work Near Energized Facilities

13.6.7 Avoid Using Hose Streams on Energized Facilities

13.6.8 Be Equally Alert Indoors and Outdoors

13.6.9 Protect People and Property in Surrounding Area and Do Not Fight Fires on Electric Equipment Until an Electric Company Representative Arrives

13.6.10 Hose Streams May Be More Hazardous than Helpful Until Any Underground Fault Is De-Energized

13.7 Effects of Electrical Shock

13.8 First Aid

13.8.1 Shock

13.8.2 Resuscitation

13.8.3 Resuscitation—Mouth-to-Mouth (Nose) Method

13.8.4 Important Points to Remember

13.8.5 Two-Victim Method of Resuscitation—Mouth-to Mouth (Nose)

13.8.6 External Heart Compression

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